The route of the first round-the-world expedition of Krusenstern. Presentation on the topic: Expeditions
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Presentation on the topic: Expeditions
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Aivazovsky I.K. “Shipwreck” The period from the middle of the 15th century to the middle of the 17th century, which was marked by the largest geographical discoveries made by European travelers, is usually called the AGE OF GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. Great geographical discoveries went in 3 directions: The southern route - around Africa; Western - across the Atlantic Ocean; Northern water - along the northern outskirts of Eurasia and North America, land - through North Asia. In the era of the GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES, geography became one of the most important sciences for mankind. She was enriched with extensive information about the structure of the Earth's surface, collected a lot of data on the nature and population of almost the entire land, and received new ideas about the nature of the World Ocean. At that time, GEOGRAPHY performed mainly the function of LAND DESCRIPTION, answered the questions: WHAT? WHERE? Geographical writings, maps and descriptions of that time served mainly as reference books. The Age of Discovery
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Aivazovsky I.K. "Sea. Moonlight Night” 1878 In the second half of the 17th and in the 18th centuries, travelers continued to search for new sea passages around the metrics, new lands in the oceans, and explored the inner parts of the continents unknown to science. During this period, SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITIONS are organized for the first time, the purpose of which, along with discoveries, is to study, explain the causes of geographical phenomena and processes, and the nature of individual territories. The tasks of land description were gradually replaced by research tasks. Scientific expeditions
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The Great Northern Expedition The historic voyage of Fedot Popov and Semyon Dezhnev in 1648 completed the discovery by the Russians of the coast of the Arctic Ocean from the White Sea to Chukotka. After this expedition, a strait was supposed to appear on the maps, connecting two oceans: the Arctic and the Pacific. However, not everyone believed in its existence, including the first persons of the Russian state. Too many obvious and hidden contradictions were contained in petitions and reports compiled by Russian pioneers of the 16th-17th centuries, who were not very literate and not sufficiently experienced in geographical wisdom. Their “tales” were considered fictions, legends. Even the emperor PETER THE GREAT himself did not fully imagine the true size and boundaries of his own possessions in the north and east of the gigantic power. That is why, a few months before his death, he ordered to equip a special expedition, which was designed to answer the "eternal" question:
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The Great Northern Expedition The ship of Peter I. The boat of Peter I is the grandfather of the Russian fleet. “WHERE DID THIS LAND MEET AMERICA?” And in January 1725, the vanguard of the expedition, which began to be called the First Kamchatka, set off on a journey, “the most distant and difficult, and never before.” The expedition was led by the captain of the first rank of the Russian fleet Vitus Bering (1681 - 1741).
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The Great Northern Expedition The Great Northern Expedition is one of the largest Russian expeditions (1733-1743), the project of which was developed by the Senate together with the Admiralty Board at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, several thousand people participated in it. In essence, it united several expeditions that carried out a huge complex of studies of the northern territory of Siberia - from the mouth of the Pechora and Vaigach Island to Chukotka, the Commander Islands and Kamchatka. For the first time, the coasts of the Arctic Ocean from Arkhangelsk to the mouth of the Kolyma, the coast of the island of Honshu, the Kuril Islands were mapped. This name “Great Northern” accurately characterizes it, because there was no more grandiose geographical enterprise before it. (read the book by B.G. Ostrovsky) St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.
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The Great Northern Expedition It all started with the decree of Peter the Great, which decided before Vitus Bering's Kamchatka expedition to find out, "... did America agree with Asia ... and put everything on the map properly." A map was drawn up of the western coast of the peninsula and 16 Kuril Islands, but there was no answer to the question of the existence of a strait between Asia and America. Then the Senate established a new Kamchatka expedition. “This expedition is the most distant and difficult and never before unprecedented that they go to such unknown places,” the Senate Decree said. The purpose of the northern detachments of this expedition was to describe the shores of the Arctic Ocean from the mouth of the Northern Dvina to the Chukchi Sea and to test the possibility of navigation along the coast of Siberia. Grave of Vitus Bering on the Commander Islands.
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Great Northern Expedition The most important routes of the Great Northern Expedition 1734-1742. SWIMMING: S. Muravyov and M. Pavlov 1734 S. Malygin and A. Skuratov 1736-1737 Dmitry Ovtsyn 1734, 1735, 1736-1737 Fyodor Minin 1738, 1739, 1740 Vasily Pronchishchev 1735-1736 Khariton Laptev and Semyon Chelyuskin 1739-1742 P.Lasinius and Dmitry Laptev 1735-1739 LAND ROUTES: Semyon Chelyuskin, Khariton Laptev, Nikifor Chekin 1740-1742 Dmitry Laptev 1741-1742 The voyage of V.I.Bering and A.I. From Kamchatka to the detachment of M. Shpanberg and V. Walton sailed to Japan and mapped the Kuril Islands. The expedition also included the Academic Detachment, the purpose of which was to explore the interior regions of Siberia and Kamchatka. The published summary maps of the expedition for the first time gave a plausible outline of North Asia, part of the coast of Northwest America, the Kuril Islands, part of the Aleutian and other Pacific islands.
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Great Northern Expedition Icebreaker Vasily Pronchishchev "Chelyuskin" in the ice. Insert a nice clear snippet NNE part of Russia The Great Northern Expedition is the largest exploratory expedition in the history of mankind. The sea and land detachments of this expedition explored and mapped the northern and northeastern shores of Eurasia, reached the northwestern shores of North America, and discovered a number of islands off the coast of Alaska. As a result of the activities of Russian navigators and explorers during the Great Northern Expedition, the possessions of the Russian Empire spread to three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and America.
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Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711 - 1765), shortly before his death, in 1763, uttered prophetic words: "Russian power will grow through Siberia and the Northern Ocean." The most “intelligent eyes” of Russia in the 18th century saw in nature many things that were inaccessible to others. Whatever Lomonosov undertook, he was always ahead of his time. M.V. Lomonosov did not make a single trip to unknown countries. And yet, he is rightfully considered one of the founders of Russian geography. In the 18th century, many truly great geographical discoveries were made in Russia. In order to map the explored areas, in 1739 the Geographical Department was established at the Academy of Sciences, through the works of which the Atlas of Russia was published six years later. This became an important event in the history of not only Russian, but also world geography. Having studied and summarized the works of the Great Northern Expedition, the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov in the 60s of the XVIII century developed a project “passing the Siberian Ocean to Eastern India”. In one of his odes, he wrote: Russian Columbuses, despising gloomy fate, Between the ice will open a new path to the east, And our power will reach America.
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Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilyevich was one of the first to understand how important it is to find and develop the Northern Sea Route. This would revive the economy of the North and Siberia, turn the country into a great maritime power. Lomonosov's contribution to the future development of the Northern Sea Route on modern maps is marked by the underwater ridge named after him, which rises from the bottom of the Arctic Ocean. Approximately in this place, in the center of the Arctic basin, Lomonosov assumed the existence of a group of islands that change the direction of sea currents. When in April 1760 the Swedish Academy of Sciences elected M.V. Lomonosov its Honorary Member, he sent the work “Discourse on the Origin of Ice Mountains in the Northern Seas” to Sweden along with a letter of thanks. It was the first to describe and classify polar ice; it is explained that floating "ice mountains" (icebergs) come from glaciers descending into the sea; provides information about the tides in the northern seas. The scientist is even trying to estimate the mass of ice in various parts of the then completely unexplored Arctic Ocean.
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Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov Lomonosov was the first in Russia to study the upper layers of the atmosphere. He foresaw that the time would come when, with the help of various instruments, they would be able to predict the weather: then "there would be no heat, no rain dangerous in the field," and ships would "sail comfortably and calmly on the sea." In his work “On the Layers of the Earth”, Lomonosov was one of the first to express the idea of a change in the climate of our planet in the process of its development. He associated climate change with astronomical causes - fluctuations in the inclination of the polar axis and the plane of the Earth's orbit. Lomonosov owns the following words about the role of geographical science in the life of society: “What is safer for the floating sea, what is more necessary for travelers to different states, how to know the position of places, the course of rivers, the distance of cities, the size, abundance and neighborhood of different lands, the customs, customs and governments of different peoples? GEOGRAPHY will clearly show this.”
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“RUSSIAN COLUMBUS” Grigory Ivanovich Shelekhov Grigory Ivanovich Shelekhov (1747 - 1795) was born in the city of Rylsk, Kursk region. The navigator, the first of the Russian merchants, realized the need to create large, economically strong companies that could discover new lands. Under his leadership, an expedition was made to the shores of Alaska, as Shelekhov told in his “Wanderings from Okhotsk to the American Shores”. Shelekhov Bay
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James Cook, the famous English navigator (1728 - 1779) The expeditions of the famous English navigator James Cook, whose name is on a par with H. Columbus and F. Magellan, made a great contribution to the development of geography. J. Cook made three voyages to the then unknown regions of the Pacific Ocean, discovered the eastern shores of Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea and a number of other islands. He also explored the subpolar and polar regions of the Earth, passed through the Bering Strait into the Arctic Ocean. J. Cook's ships also reached the Antarctic Circle, but ice and fog did not allow the navigator to penetrate further south.
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18th - 19th - early 20th centuries The most important stage in the accumulation of knowledge about the Earth Numerous expeditions of the 18th - 19th and early 20th centuries enriched geography with knowledge about the nature and population of the Earth. During this era, the polar regions of our planet were discovered and explored. Names of travelers of this era: Years of travel: The contribution of scientists and travelers to the development of knowledge about the Earth: Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern and Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky 1803 -1806. The first Russian round-the-world expedition. The description of the journey was set out by Kruzenshtern I.F. In the 3-volume work “Journey around the world in 1803 - 1806. On the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva". Attached to the description is an atlas of 104 maps and drawings; an atlas of maps of the southern seas was compiled; various oceanological observations were carried out, data on the atmosphere, tides and tides of the World Ocean were collected.
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Travelers Names of travelers of this era: Years of travel: The contribution of scientists and travelers to the development of knowledge about the Earth: Vasily Mikhailovich Golovnin 1817 - 1819. He made the 2nd Russian round-the-world trip, which he described in the book “Journey around the world on the sloop Kamchatka”. Named after him: a bay in the Bering Sea, a strait between islands in the chain of the Kuril Islands, a mountain and a cape on Novaya Zemlya, a volcano on Kunashir Island. Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev 1819 -1821 The first Russian Antarctic expedition. The result of the expedition was that it proved the existence of the southern continent - Antarctica, described the nature of its shores at a number of points and determined the boundaries. The expedition discovered many islands and corrected Cook's discovery. With her work, she laid the foundation for the study of the southern polar region. Every day, despite difficult meteorological conditions, scientific observations were made. Geographically, the Russian Antarctic expedition was the greatest in the 19th century.
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Travelers Names of travelers of this era: Years of travel: The contribution of scientists and travelers to the development of knowledge about the Earth: Alexander Humboldt (German naturalist, geographer-theorist, traveler) XIX century “Second Columbus” he was nicknamed for the 30-volume work “Journey through the tropical regions of the New Light”, in which he outlined the results of his 5-year expedition to America. Mountain ranges in Central Asia and North America, a mountain on the island of New Caledonia, a river, a lake, several settlements in North America, Mount Humboldt near Humboldt Bay, a glacier in Greenland, mountains in Australia, New Guinea and New Zealand are named after him. David Livingston (English traveler) The explorer of Central and South Africa, David Livingston devoted his whole life to the study of this continent. Neither before nor after him did anyone make so many geographical discoveries on this continent.
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Travelers Names of travelers of this era: Years of travel: The contribution of scientists and travelers to the development of knowledge about the Earth: Pyotr Petrovich Semenov-Tyan-Shansky 1856 - 1857. For the first time he visited and mapped this huge mountain system of Central Asia, unknown to science, which before him remained a “blank spot”. As a result of the study, he refuted the erroneous views of A. Humboldt and proved that the Tien Shan mountains are not of volcanic origin, established their vertical natural belts, determined the height of the snow line, drew up an orography scheme ... For almost half a century, Petr Petrovich headed the RUSSIAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. On his initiative, with his support, under his leadership, extensive research was carried out and works were created on the geographical description of Russia, a 5-volume “Geographical and Statistical Dictionary of the Russian Empire” was compiled, which contained the available information about rivers, lakes, seas, cities, towns, counties, provinces…
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Travelers Names of travelers of this era: Years of travel: The contribution of scientists and travelers to the development of knowledge about the Earth: Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky 1870 - 1873 1876 - 1877 1879 - 1880 1883 - 1885 The first European explorer of the interior regions of Central Asia. He explored the hard-to-reach regions of Mongolia, China and Tibet, passed through the endless Mongolian steppes, crossed the Gobi, Alashan, Takla-Makan deserts, the Ordos plateau and the northern outskirts of high-mountainous Tibet; explored the upper reaches of the Huang He, Yangtze and Tarim rivers, the lakes of Central Asia; discovered hitherto unknown mountain ranges in the Nanshan and Kunlun systems ... His travels brought world fame to Russian geographical science. By decision of the Russian Academy of Sciences, a GOLD MEDAL with the inscription “To the First Explorer of Central Asia” was knocked out in his honor. Nikolai Nikolayevich Miklukho-Maclay The inhabitants of New Guinea called him "The Man from the Moon". Many years of research by this Russian scientist and traveler have enriched science with the most valuable ethnographic information about the indigenous population of the Pacific Islands, where the scientist spent many years. The discovery that immortalized his name is his "discovery" of man "among primitive people."
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To be continued….. (see PART 5) The latest discoveries of the 20th century. Numerous expeditions of the 18th - 19th and early 20th centuries enriched geography with knowledge about the nature and population of the Earth. During this era, the polar regions of our planet were discovered and explored. So geography moved from the accumulation of traditional reference material to the creation of complex descriptions of countries and individual territories. The first theories arose about the structure of the atmosphere, the movement of air masses, the doctrine of the origin of land relief and its development under the influence of internal and external forces. Geographers put forward the idea of the unity and integrity of the entire nature of the Earth. Travelers
The first Russian circumnavigation of the world 1803-1806 Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky
The purpose of the expedition
To make the first round-the-world voyage in the history of the Russian fleet. Deliver-pick up goods from Russian America. Establish diplomatic contacts with Japan. Show the profitability of direct trade in furs from Russian America to China. Prove the benefits of the sea route from Russian America to St. Petersburg in comparison with the land route. Conduct various geographical observations and scientific research along the route of the expedition.
The composition of the expedition
Ships:
Three-masted sloop "Nadezhda", with a displacement of 450 tons, a length of 35 meters. Acquired in England specifically for the expedition. The ship was not new, but endured all the difficulties of circumnavigating the world.
Three-masted sloop "Neva", displacement 370 tons. Bought there specifically for the expedition. He endured all the difficulties of circumnavigating the world, after which he was the first Russian ship to visit Australia in 1807.
Emperor Alexander I personally examined both sloops and allowed them to raise the military flags of the Russian Empire. The emperor took over the maintenance of one of the ships at his own expense, and the Russian-American Company and one of the main inspirers of the expedition, Count N.P. Rumyantsev, took over the costs of operating the other. Which ship was taken by whom is not specified.
Personnel
Head of the expedition Kruzenshtern Ivan Fedorovich.
Age at the start - 32 years.
He is also the captain of the flagship of the expedition, the sloop Nadezhda.
On board the Nadezhda were:
midshipmen Thaddeus Bellingshausen and Otto Kotzebue, who later glorified the Russian fleet with their expeditions
Ambassador Rezanov Nikolai Petrovich (to establish diplomatic relations with Japan) and his retinue
scientists Horner, Tilesius and Langsdorf, artist Kurlyantsev
in a mysterious way, the famous brawler and duellist Count Fyodor Tolstoy, who went down in history as Tolstoy the American, also got on the expedition.
The sailors were all Russians to one - such was the condition of Kruzenshtern.
The total team size is 65 people.
Sloop "Neva":
Commander - Yury Fedorovich Lisyansky.
Age at the start is 30 years old.
The total number of the ship's crew is 54 people.
In the holds of both ships there were iron products, alcohol, weapons, gunpowder, and many other things for delivery to Russian America and Kamchatka.
Start of the first Russian round-the-world expedition
The expedition left Kronstadt on July 26 (August 7), 1803. On the way we went to Copenhagen, then to the small English port of Falmouth, where the ships were once again caulked.
Canary Islands
The expedition approached the archipelago on October 19, 1803. They stayed in the harbor of Santa Cruz for a week and on October 26 headed south.
Equator
On November 26, 1803, ships under the Russian flag "Nadezhda" and "Neva" crossed the equator for the first time and entered the Southern Hemisphere. According to the maritime tradition, the feast of Neptune was arranged.
South America
The shores of Brazil appeared on December 18, 1803. They stopped in the harbor of the city of Destero, where they stood for a month and a half to repair the main mast of the Neva. Only on February 4, 1804 did both ships move further south along the South American coast.
Cape Horn
Before going around Cape Horn, Kruzenshtern and Lisyansky agreed on a meeting place, since both understood that in this place the ships were easily swept away by bad weather. The first version of the meeting was Easter Island, the spare - Nukagiva Island. The Nadezhda successfully rounded Cape Horn and on March 3, 1804 entered the Pacific Ocean.
Nukagiva
Easter Island slipped through in strong winds, so Kruzenshtern went straight to the alternate meeting point, Nukagiva Island, where he arrived on May 7, 1804. On the way, the islands of Fetuga and Uaguga from the Marquesas group were mapped. On May 10, the Neva also approached Nukagiva. A week later, both ships set sail in the direction of the Hawaiian Islands.
Equator
Hawaiian Islands
The ships approached them on June 7, 1804. Here they were to part. "Neva" with a cargo of goods for the Russian-American company went towards Alaska, to the island of Kodiak. "Nadezhda" headed for Kamchatka, from where it was necessary to go with the embassy to Japan and explore the island of Sakhalin. The meeting of both ships was now to be held only in Macau in September 1805, where the Nadezhda would approach upon completion of the diplomatic mission, and the Neva with a load of furs from Russian America.
Journey of Hope
Kamchatka
Nadezhda entered the Avacha Bay on July 14, 1804. The population of Petropavlovsk then was about 200 people. Governor General Koshelev arrived here from Nizhnekamchatsk (then the capital of the peninsula), who in every possible way contributed to the repair of the ship and preparations for a visit to Japan. The expedition was left by a doctor and an artist, and the brawler Tolstoy was forcibly "written ashore". August 30, 1804 "Hope" headed for Japan.
Japan
It is known from the history of Japan that any foreign ships were prohibited from entering Japanese ports. And the inhabitants of the islands of the rising sun were strictly forbidden to contact with foreigners. Such forced self-isolation saved Japan from possible colonization and trade expansion by Europeans, and also contributed to the preservation of its identity. Only merchants of the Dutch East India Company were allowed to trade in the port of Nagasaki, the southernmost point of the country. The Dutch had a monopoly on trade with Japan and did not let competitors into their possessions, hid sea charts with coordinates, etc. Therefore, Kruzenshtern had to drive Nadezhda to Nagasaki almost at random, simultaneously shooting Japanese coasts.
To Nagasaki
Kruzenshtern's ship with Ambassador Rezanov entered the harbor of Nagasaki on October 8, 1804. On board the Russians had several Japanese who had once fallen to the Russians as a result of the crash, and whom the expedition carried with them as translators.
A Japanese representative entered the ship and asked hu-is-hu, they say, where and why they arrived. Then the Japanese pilot helped the Nadezhda enter the harbor, where they dropped anchor. Only Japanese, Chinese and Dutch ships were in the harbor.
Negotiations with the Japanese
This topic deserves a separate story and a separate article. Let's just say that the Japanese "purged" the Russian "diplomatic mission" in the port of Nagasaki until April 18, 1805 - five and a half months! And Kruzenshtern and Rezanov had to go home without salty slurping.
The Japanese emperor “paused” for a long time, then answered through his officials that there would be no agreements with the Russians, and he could not accept the gifts of the Russian emperor - several huge mirrors in an expensive frame. Say, Japan is not able to equally thank the emperor of the Russians because of their poverty. Laughter, and more! Either the Dutch did a good job here, or the Japanese themselves did not want any contacts with Russia.
True, the Japanese administration supplied the ship with food all the time the ship was in the port. And loaded the road with food, water and lots of salt for free. At the same time, Kruzenshtern was categorically forbidden to return along the western coast of Japan.
Return of Nadezhda to Kamchatka
Coming out of the Japanese "captivity", Kruzenshtern decided not to give a damn about the Japanese ban and went precisely along the western coast, putting it on the map. At sea, he was his own master and was not afraid of anyone - past combat experience gave him every reason to do so. He landed on the shore several times and got to know this mysterious country as closely as he could. It was possible to establish contacts with the Ainu - the inhabitants of the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido.
Sakhalin
Nadezhda entered the Aniva Bay in the south of Sakhalin on May 14, 1805. The Ainu also lived here and the Japanese administration commanded. Kruzenshtern was determined to explore Sakhalin in more detail, but Rezanov insisted on a speedy return to Kamchatka in order to report to St. Petersburg on the results of his "embassy".
Kamchatka
On June 5, Nadezhda returned to Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. Rezanov went ashore, sent a report to the capital, and left on a merchant ship for Russian America in Alaska. July 5, 1805 "Nadezhda" again went to sea and headed for Sakhalin. But Kruzenshtern failed to go around Sakhalin "around" and determine whether it was an island or a peninsula. On August 30, the Nadezhda team entered the Avacha Bay of Petropavlovsk for the third time. Kruzenshtern began to prepare for a campaign in Macau.
Macau
This is the name of the Portuguese colony-fortress-port on the Chinese coast. Leaving Petropavlovsk on October 9, 1805, Nadezhda was in Macau on November 20. The Neva was nowhere to be seen.
Travel "Neva"
Russian America
On July 10, 1804, the Neva sloop, under the command of Lieutenant-Commander Lisyansky, approached Kodiak Island on the southern coast of Alaska. The island was one of the first places of capital justification of Russians in America. Lisyansky brought the ship to the harbor of St. Paul - a kind of administrative center of this Russian province. Here he learned that the second center of the Russians - the Arkhangelsk fortress in Sitka Bay, much south and east of Kodiak, had been attacked by the local Indians. The fortress was burned, the inhabitants were killed. The conflict flared up not without the help and instigation of the Americans, by that time they began to actively penetrate into these places.
Alexander Andreevich Baranov, the legendary ruler of Russian America, left "for war" to recapture the Arkhangelsk fortress with the help of Russian-friendly Indians and Aleuts. Baranov left a message for Lisyansky asking him to urgently arrive in Sitka to provide armed assistance. However, the crew of the Neva spent almost a month unloading the ship's holds and repairing the equipment. On August 15, the Neva headed towards Sitka.
Novoarkhangelsk - Sitka
On August 20, Lisyansky was already in Sitka Bay. Here he met Alexander Baranov, who made a strong impression on him. Together they worked out a plan for a military operation. The guns and sailors of the Neva played a decisive role in restoring the "status quo" in relations with the Tinklit Indians. Not far from the burnt old fortress, a new settlement, Novoarkhangelsk, was founded. On November 10, the Neva left Sitka and headed for Kodiak.
Back in Kodiak
"Neva" appeared in five days. Since winter was approaching, it was decided to spend the winter here, repair, rest and fill the holds with precious junk - furs of the Russian-American Company. At the beginning of the next summer, on June 13, 1805, Lisyansky's ship left the harbor of St. Paul and headed for Sitka to pick up the furs prepared by Baranov, and after that go to Macau.
Back in Sitka - Novoarkhangelsk
The Neva turned out to be June 22, 1805. During the winter, Baranov managed to rebuild the settlement, restore peace with the local Indians, and procure a large number of furs. Having loaded soft gold into the holds, Lisyansky on September 2, 1805 headed for Macau.
To Macau
Krusenstern arrived in Macau on November 20, 1805. 
Lisyansky reached the Chinese coast only on December 3rd. Here I had to stay for more than two months, "getting used" to local conditions, the economic and political situation, to maneuver, to bargain. In this, both military sailors Kruzenshtern and Lisyansky showed remarkable abilities. And they emerged victorious in the trade war with local merchants. Instead of furs, the holds of the ships were filled with tea, porcelain and other liquid goods in Europe. February 9, 1806 "Nadezhda" and "Neva" left the Chinese coast and headed for their homeland.
Across two oceans
The ships were swept away on the way to the Cape of Good Hope. The captains had previously agreed to meet at St. Helena. Krusenstern arrived at St. Helena on May 3, 1806. Here he learned that Russia was at war with Napoleon and France. Without waiting for the Neva, Nadezhda went north to her native land, deciding for safety to go around England from the north so as not to collide with the French in the English Channel.
Meanwhile, Lisyansky decided to set a kind of record - to go from China to Europe without calling at intermediate ports. The ship no longer had heavy cargo, took enough supplies of food and water, and went with full sail. Therefore, Lisyansky did not appear on the island of St. Helena and, accordingly, did not know about the war with France. He calmly entered the English Channel, and there he decided to go to the British port of Portsmouth. Having rested in Portsmouth for a couple of weeks, on July 13, 1806, the Neva again went to sea and on August 5, 1806 was already at home. And on August 19, 1806, the sails of the Nadezhda appeared in view of their native shores.
Thus ended the first round-the-world voyage of Russian sailors, an unprecedented trip filled with dangers and adventures, interesting and significant events for history.
It should be said that from the point of view of profit, the expedition fully justified itself, bringing considerable profit to the merchants, glory to the Fatherland and forever inscribing the names of Russian navigators Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky in the history of navigation.
Emperor Alexander I royally awarded I.F. Kruzenshtern and all members of the expedition.
all officers received the following ranks,
commanders of the Order of St. Vladimir 3rd degree and 3000 rubles each.
lieutenants by 1000
midshipmen for 800 rubles of a life pension
the lower ranks, if desired, were dismissed and awarded a pension of 50 to 75 rubles.
By the highest command, a special medal was knocked out for all participants in this first round-the-world trip.
“A journey around the world in 1803, 1804, 1805 and 1806 on the ships Nadezhda and Neva, under the command of Lieutenant Commander Kruzenshtern” in 3 volumes, with an atlas of 104 maps and engraved paintings. This was the name of the work written personally by Kruzenshtern and published at the expense of the imperial cabinet., St. Petersburg, 1809. Subsequently, it was translated into many European languages.
Russian travelers and pioneers
Again
Travelers of the Age of DiscoveryI am sure that many people know about the first round-the-world trip led by Ferdinand Magellan. This historical event played a key role in the process of discovering new lands and territories, but this expedition was carried out by the Spaniards, and I would like to tell about our compatriots who were able to accomplish such a feat.
General travel information
The Russians decided to travel around the world much later than the Spaniards, led by Ferdinand Magellan. This event dates back to 1803, and its duration was the same as that of the first expedition - 3 years. But if the Spaniards had Magellan, then who were the commanders of the Russians? These were two people, namely: Yuri Lisyansky and Ivan Kruzenshtern, who commanded the crews of their ships Neva and Nadezhda. Further, I would like to say about the significance of this expedition for Russia in general. It also influenced the raising of the level of the Russian fleet, and, of course, brought many benefits to the study of world waters. Now I want to go, in fact, to the route along which the expedition moved.
Description of the journey by Russians around the world
The beginning of the journey was marked by a personal inspection of Alexander I of the ships, which became home for sailors for the next 3 years. In addition, I can highlight:
Now, regarding the itinerary. It originates in Kronstadt, and the first stop was the Danish city of Copenhagen, after which the expedition went to Britain, and then visited the Canary Islands and Spain. After a short pause, they headed to Brazil, visited Easter Island and the Hawaiian Islands. The next addressee was Russian Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky and Japan, then Alaska, China and even Macau, which is located in Portugal. After visiting St. Helena, the Azores and Portsmouth in the UK, the travelers returned to Kronstadt.
Our Pechora-Yugorsk journey began with the fact that we flew by plane to Naryan-Mar, the only city of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, and then by taxi we got to the Pechora River, where we collected our kayak on the beach of the village of Iskateley.
Pechora River
We started on the evening of June 28th. The weather did not spoil us from the very beginning - a head North-West wind was blowing, it was quite cold - only about 10 degrees. As a result, we walked along the Pechora for almost eight days, instead of the planned three or four, because in addition to the wind resistance, which invariably blows in our faces, we also had to overcome a very steep and short oncoming wave.
Pechora is a full-flowing river, therefore, with such winds blowing against its powerful current, it becomes very difficult to pass. In some places we had to stand for a couple of days, waiting out the bad weather. The river at that time had very high water, and its low banks were often completely flooded with water, above which only impassable willow thickets protruded, so it was very difficult to stop.
Five days later the weather improved, one day a south-westerly wind blew, for us a side wind and very convenient for sailing. Under sail, we quickly moved even closer to the mouth, and two days later successfully entered the Barents Sea. Now we had to overcome the Bolvanskaya Bay - the first obstacle in our path. But the weather turned bad again. We did not dare to cross the bay directly and went around it around the perimeter under sail.
I must say, our sailing equipment this time was very good and allowed us to sail courses up to 45 degrees to the wind. We invented the spars, and ordered the sails themselves from the St. Petersburg master Sergey Novitsky, all the time I mentally thanked him.
The passage of the small Bolvanskaya Bay dragged on for several days. We could only go under sail for a short time, and most of the time we had to slowly crawl on the oars against the wind. The matter was further complicated by the extremely uncomfortable bottom in the bay: it was exceptionally shallow here, and at low tide the bay dried up many hundreds of meters from the shore, and then the depth for several kilometers reached, God forbid, 15-20 centimeters. With such a depth, of course, it is very difficult to walk, scratching your belly.
By the way, here we managed to lose the only compass. What a shame - now you have to navigate only by the sun, clocks and maps.
In the sea
But everything comes to an end, and on July 11 we left Bolvanskaya Bay behind, went to the village of Farikha, where we drank tea with a local fisherman and asked him about the local weather and sailing conditions. After that, we moved further to the northeast, passed the no longer working oil terminal in the village of Dresvyanka, and three days later we reached the weather station, located ten kilometers west of Cape Konstantinovsky, where we again met the fishermen, having talked with whom, we went further. Having walked quite a bit from the weather station, we stood in a rather uncomfortable, low and swampy place.
The next day the weather began to deteriorate, the west wind rose, favorable to us, but too strong to go further. A day later, a real storm began, which brought a huge amount of water from the ocean to the shore, due to which its level increased, and our camp was literally washed away. We managed to evacuate to a higher place about half an hour before the sea flooded the tundra several kilometers away from the usual coastline.
On July 17, the storm ended, and a calm easterly breeze blew again. We rowed further, reaching Cape Burner. During the day the weather deteriorated, it began to rain, and the next morning the wind again set to the west and intensified. Having left, we raised the sail, but the passage was limited to fifteen minutes: the wind increased sharply, it began to storm, and we hastily threw ourselves ashore. Yes, the weather here is capricious, in this place we had to spend another two days, waiting for the wind to weaken.
The next transition was more successful. Having sailed around the huge shoals, we passed Cape Chernaya Lopatka, and stood in Pakhancheskaya Bay. The place here again turned out to be terribly uncomfortable, low. Now we knew for sure that it was the same here, during westerly storms, the tundra would be flooded with the sea for several kilometers. All the lakes and streams here turned out to be completely salty, and in search of fresh water we had to go quite far to find at least some fresh puddle.
In the evening of the next day we went further, we really wanted to quickly reach Varandey, a settlement located exactly in the middle of our route. We decided to cross Pakhancheskaya Bay straight ahead. A light breeze blew from the south, we slowly moved forward, but soon the rain caught up with us. The wind intensified, from the pure south it began to set in the southeast. Both the coast and the low night sun disappeared behind the rain - we immediately lost our orientation in space. In order not to inadvertently jump out into the open ocean from the bay, we took it to the east, and in a few hours we found ourselves on the coast, twenty-five kilometers south of the Pesyakov Shar channel. Here we again faced problems with water, but we stood in this place for another day, after which, again under sail, in three passages, by July 25 we reached Varandey.
The sea near Varandey met us with high steep waves and a headwind from the east. We felt mortally tired and, having entered the frontier post in Novy Varandey, retreated ten kilometers to the west, to Pesyakov Island, where we hoped to wait for more suitable weather. Our fatigue, as it turned out, had a very specific nature: the oxygen content in the air at high latitudes is much lower than in the middle lane. The body's need for food and rest increases, and the forces become much less. Everything was complicated by the fact that we were running out of food, and there was no store in Varandey. Fortunately, the local land is very rich in game, and therefore we were not threatened with famine. We spent three more days on Pesyakovo, after which we set off further.
The wind still blew in our faces, and we moved forward very slowly, making small transitions. So, on August 1, we reached Cape Polyarny, where the semi-abandoned base "Medynka" was located, guarded by two watchmen. Here we stayed for two days, ate, and then acquired a month's supply of cereals at a nearby drilling site. Now we could boldly go further and, having rounded Cape Medynsky, having crossed the transport bay with a fair wind, we stood twenty kilometers north of Cape Perevozny Nos.
Next, we had to cross the Khaipudyr Bay in a narrow place - the last serious obstacle on the way to Vaigach. On August 7, under sail, we reached the cape, turning near which, we moved through the sixteen-kilometer throat of the bay in order to reach its eastern shore. When we moved away from the Transportation Nose, it was already getting dark, but there was still enough light to see the opposite high coast. The wind died down, we lowered the sails and rowed forward. However, not even an hour had passed before a fresh wind blew from the west at our backs. The wind kept getting fresher, the sky was covered with clouds, it was getting dark all around, and, finally, we began to lose sight of the coast to which we were going.
Fortunately, the dawn was still visible in the north, and we could confidently keep the right direction. The waves gradually became steeper and meaner, soon they rolled chaotically from different directions and we finally realized that we probably got excited, going through the lip not only at night, but also at low tide. It became clear that now we would fall into a real ripple: at low tide, a huge mass of water rushes from the Khaipudyr Bay into the ocean and, colliding with the ocean current, forms very high chaotic waves raging for several kilometers.
We were mortally afraid of this, but there was no way to go back because of the strong western wind. Resigned to the inevitable, we rushed headlong into this sula, and for the rest of the journey we suffered such fear that we almost turned gray.
To understand what a sea sula is, imagine a powerful threshold of ten kilometers in length, in which there are no stones, but ramparts of at least two meters in height are constantly raging. Cape Sinkin Nos. The weather turned hopelessly bad, a storm raged. Here we had to spend another four days, waiting out the bad weather. On foot, we went to the uninhabited village of Sinkin, where we met a lone hunter who lives there, and from whom we learned many interesting local tales.
When the weather improved, we went further, and in two crossings we reached Cape Cherny Nos near the mouth of the Korotaikha River. Forty kilometers from the mouth is the village of Karatayka, the largest settlement in these places, but we were not interested in it then, and at the next crossing we reached the Bolshaya Talata River in Belkovskaya Bay. Here we rested during the day, and on August 16 we set off north along the coast of the Yugra Peninsula.
A fresh south wind was blowing, which, as it turned out later, reached a speed of 21 m / s. In just two days we reached the Yugorsky Shar strait, where we spent the night at the Bely Nos polar station. Now we had to cross the strait in order to reach our cherished goal. This did not cause any difficulties, and on August 19 we landed on the white rocky shores of Vaygach Island, near Cape Kanin Nos. Here we finally got the opportunity to rinse our boots in the cold waters of the Kara Sea, the western border of which here runs exactly along the line Bely Nos - Cape Greben.
From here we decided to return to Karatayka, although only 40 kilometers remained to Amderma, due to the fact that it was almost impossible to get out of Amderma “on the ground” for real money. Now about 200 kilometers separated us from the desired finish, but the wind blew stubbornly from the southwest and we could hardly expect to return quickly back to the mouth of the Korotaikha. And so it happened: we crawled 70 kilometers to the hut on the Sedayakha River in six days. We stayed on Sedaiakh for several days, waiting for another storm.
In the vicinity, we were lucky to meet reindeer herders and a passing all-terrain vehicle, on which on August 30 we successfully reached Karatayka, from where, by September 3, we also reached Vorkuta on an all-terrain vehicle.
In general, on this journey, out of seventy days in total, there were no more than forty running. And on average, if we divide the total mileage by the total amount of time spent on the expedition, our speed was just over ten kilometers per day. This is very little compared even to the White Sea, where our average daily mileage was almost fifteen kilometers. In addition, as we understood, it was necessary to leave not at the end, but at the beginning of June, as soon as the sea begins to free itself from ice. In this case, the duration of the season will not be two months (as in our case), but almost three. Indeed, at the end of August it is almost impossible to go kayaking here - the wind blows much stronger, it storms almost every day, and frosts begin at night.
However, the Barents Sea cannot be called more severe and complex than, for example, the White Sea. Storms come here and there, and in any sea they are dangerous. If we compare the White and Barents Seas, then we can say that it is much easier to land on the shore in the Barents Sea in a kayak - there are no such huge littoral areas covered with viscous silt that prevent you from approaching land.
On the Barents Sea, the bottom is sandy or rocky - it is a pleasure to wander along it. At the beginning of summer, there are not many storms here and there are quite a few days when the sea is absolutely calm and the water is smooth as glass. Therefore, it cannot be said that the Barents Sea is extremely dangerous and impassable for a kayak. You just have to keep in mind that storms come here more often and forces leave much faster.
Our difficulties arose more likely not at sea, but on land - due to strong winds, lack of oxygen and cold weather. We took three times more food than usual, and our strength ended twice as fast. For example, in thirty-five days we walked only four hundred kilometers to the Medynsky inversion, and by this time we had almost run out of food stored for two months.
Nevertheless, despite all the difficulties and surprises, the trip turned out to be simply unforgettable, and we will continue it next year. I think it should turn out to be no less interesting and exciting than this.
Well, now, it's time to move on to reading stories about the Pechora-Yugorsk journey.
- Forward
Discoveries of James Cook
James Cook (born October 27 (November 7), 1728 - death February 14, 1779) was an English navy sailor, explorer, cartographer and discoverer, member of the Royal Society and captain of the Royal Navy. He led three round-the-world expeditions to explore the oceans.
The main events of the biography. Expeditions
1759 - 1760 - Explored and mapped the banks of the Canadian St. Lawrence River.
1763 - 1766 - Mapped the coast of Newfoundland.
1768 - 1771 - First Pacific expedition: explored Tahiti and the Community Islands. Mapped the coasts of New Zealand and eastern Australia.
1772 - 1775 - Second trip around the world: explored Tahiti and New Zealand, visited the Marquesas Islands, New Caledonia New Hebrides and other islands of Polynesia and Macranesia. For the first time in history, he crossed the Antarctic Circle. Explored South Georgia and South Sandwich.
1776 - 1780 - Third voyage around the world: search for the Northwest Passage from the western coast of the North American continent. Return to New Zealand and Tahiti. Visited the Hawaiian Islands.
Explored the west coast of America from Oregon to Point Barrow, Alaska.
1779 - In 1779 he was killed in a skirmish with the Hawaiians.
Whatever the opinion of the public on my voyage, I must, with a feeling of true satisfaction, demanding no other reward than the recognition that I have fulfilled my duty, finish ... the report as follows: the facts confirm that we have proved the possibility of maintaining the health of a large crew in long voyage, in different climatic conditions, with tireless work.
James Cook. "Journey to the South Pole and Around the World"
One of the most prominent figures in the history of discovery. A man of the Age of Enlightenment, James Cook was not only a discoverer and conqueror of new lands, who gains fame and fortune or opens up new ways of trade. Thanks to his voyages, he became authoritative in solving scientific issues.
Walter Kremer. "300 travelers"
James Cook is one of the most prominent English navigators. He was the leader of three round-the-world expeditions. He discovered many islands in the Pacific Ocean, the Great Barrier Reef and the east coast of Australia, found out the island location of New Zealand. He made attempts to find the southern mainland - Antarctica. A bay near the Kenai Peninsula in Alaska, a group of islands in Polynesia, a strait between both islands of New Zealand, etc. bear his name.
Childhood
1728, October 27 - in the poor family of a Yorkshire farmhand in the village of Marton, the ninth child was born, who later won the fame of the national hero of England and strengthened its influence in the Pacific region.
His life was not easy, full of tireless work and perseverance in achieving the goal. Already at the age of seven, the boy began working on the Airy-Golm farm, owned by the landowner Thomas Scottow. It was he who helped a capable child get an elementary education by placing James in a school at his own expense.
A few years later, in the seaside village of Stey, Cook entered the service of the grocery and haberdashery merchant William Sanders, who later claimed that even in his youth, the future traveler was distinguished by maturity of judgment and subtle calculation. Perhaps it was here, when he saw the sea for the first time, that Cook felt his true calling, because a year and a half later, much earlier than the expiration of the 4-year contract, he signed up as a student on the sailing ship "Free Love", which transported coal. Love for the "coal miners" remained with Cook until the end of his life. He considered these ships the most suitable for long-term voyages in uncharted waters.
First successes
1752 - smart and domineering Cook became the captain's assistant on the ship "Friendship". In this position, the beginning of the Seven Years' War found him, when his ship was in the port of London. After some hesitation, the young man signed up as a volunteer in the English navy, desiring, as he himself said, "to try his luck on this path." And it didn't let him down. Already 3 years later, in 1759, Cook received his first officer rank and sailed to Canada on the ship "Mercury", sent to conduct military operations on the river. Saint Lawrence. There he was able to distinguish himself by performing measurements in the fairway of the river at the risk of his life and drawing up an accurate map.
After the war ended, Cook focused on improving his education. Stubbornly, without anyone's help, he mastered geometry and astronomy, so much so that the depth of knowledge amazed his colleagues who studied in expensive special schools. He himself assessed his "scholarship" more modestly.
The further career of James Cook, thanks to his unparalleled diligence, intelligence and insight, continuously went up. 1762, September - participating in military operations against the French in Newfoundland, he made a detailed inventory of Placentia Bay and a topographical survey of its shores, examined the conditions of navigation between the island of Newfoundland and the Labrador Peninsula. The result of his labors were eight accurate maps of these places.
Pacific expedition
1768 - The British Admiralty organized a Pacific expedition to observe the passage of the planet Venus through the disk of the Sun to Tahiti. In addition to the official, other goals were also pursued: to prevent the seizure of new lands by other powers, to resume the creation of strongholds and bases in the region to establish British control here. Great importance was attached to the discovery of new rich lands, the development of trade in "colonial goods", including slaves. The most suitable candidate for the head of the expedition turned out to be James Cook, who was not yet widely known, but who had proven himself in professional circles.
The lieutenant personally chose a bark on the Thames (the three-masted ship "Endeavor" - "Attempt"), which left the mouth of the Thames on June 30, 1768, with a team of 84 people, and in January 1769, passing Madeira, Canary Islands, islands wa Cape Verde, has already rounded Cape Horn and entered the Pacific Ocean. Thus began the Pacific epic of James Cook, which immortalized his name and turned him into a legendary man.
On April 13, the expedition reached Tahiti, where on June 3, under excellent weather conditions, astronomical observations of Venus were made. From here, Cook turned west and rediscovered the Society Islands, so named after the Learned Society of London; then he went around New Zealand, finding out that it was a double island, which refuted the opinion of Tasman, who considered it part of the legendary Southern continent.
The next discoveries were the discovery of the previously unknown east coast of Australia, the Great Barrier Reef, the rediscovery of the Torres Strait. In the end, Cook's ships rounded the Cape of Good Hope and returned to England in 1771, completing a voyage that lasted 2 years and 9.5 months. Accurate maps of all surveyed areas were drawn up. Tahiti and the nearby islands were declared possessions of the English crown.
Second trip around the world
The second round-the-world trip, which lasted from 1772 to 1775, had an even greater resonance. They began to talk about Cook as a new Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Magellan.
The task of the expedition was associated with the search for the southern mainland, which for several centuries has been unsuccessfully searched for by navigators from different countries. The Admiralty, greatly impressed by Cook's successes, assigned two ships to this difficult task.
For almost three years, the Resolution and Adventure, the new ships of James Cook, were sailing. Leaving Plymouth on June 13, 1772, he was the first of the round-the-world travelers to explore the entire previously unknown part of the Pacific Ocean between 60 ° and 70 ° S. latitude, at the same time twice crossed the Antarctic Circle and reached 70 ° 10? Yu. sh. Having discovered huge icebergs and ice fields, Cook became convinced that "the risk associated with sailing in these unexplored and ice-covered seas is so great that ... no person will ever dare to penetrate further south than I could" and that lands that "may lie in the South will never be explored."
Cook was wrong, and his mistake - the captain's authority was so great - slowed down the search for Antarctica for several decades. In the second voyage, Cook discovered the island of South Georgia, the South Sandwich Islands, New Caledonia, New Hebrides, about. Norfolk; he also continued research and measurement work.
Third trip around the world
Reconstruction of Endeavour
Cook rested for a year, having received a long vacation, and on July 12, 1776, he set off on his third and last trip. On the ships Resolution and Discovery, now with the rank of captain, he set sail in search of a trade route from the Pacific to the Atlantic around North America - the long-sought northwest passage.
In this expedition, the group of Hawaiian Islands, named after the then head of the Admiralty Sandwich Islands, was rediscovered, the still completely unknown northwestern coast of America, right up to Alaska, was mapped, the location of Asia and America relative to each other was clarified. In search of a northwest passage, the travelers reached 70°41? With. sh. at Cape Icy, where the ships were blocked by pack ice. The expedition turned south, and in November 1778 the crew landed again in the Hawaiian Islands.
Death of James Cook
It was there that the world-famous tragedy took place. The Hawaiians had an ancient legend about the god O-Rono, who should return to Hawaii on a floating island. The priest O-Rono declared Cook a god. The honors paid by the islanders were unpleasant to the navigator. However, believing that this would make the stay of the team in Hawaii safer, he did not dissuade the natives.
And in their midst, a complex struggle of interests between priests and warriors began. The divine origin of the captain was called into question. There was a desire to check it out. Theft in the expedition camp led to skirmishes with the natives. The situation escalated, and in one of the clashes, on February 14, 1779, James Cook was killed with a spear in the back of the head. The Hawaiians took the corpse with them, and the next day the priests - the captain's friends - weepingly brought back the pieces of the body that they had inherited during the division. Yielding to the demands of the sailors, Captain Clerk, who replaced Cook, allowed the Hawaiians to be dealt with. The sailors ruthlessly killed everyone they came across on the way, burned the villages. The natives sued for peace and returned the body parts, which the crew gave to the sea with great honors.
Contribution made to the history of geographical discoveries
Cook's activity was regarded by contemporaries and researchers of a later time ambiguously. Like any talented and bright personality, he had his fans and enemies. Father and son, Johann and Georg Forster, took part in the second voyage as natural scientists. The convictions of the eldest of them, who were strongly influenced by Rousseau's ideas about the "natural" man, made him a serious opponent of Cook in assessing many travel situations, especially those related to the relationship between Europeans and natives. Forster was mercilessly critical of Cook's actions and often idealized the inhabitants of the islands.
Serious disagreements between the scientist and the captain arose immediately upon returning from the voyage. Both Forsters categorically refused to adhere to the official plan of travel notes outlined by the Admiralty. Finally, Johann had to make a commitment not to publish his own description of the trip. But he gave his notes to George, who processed them and nevertheless published them three months earlier than the publication of Cook's notes. And in 1778, Forster Sr. published his "Observations made during a trip around the world."
Both books of the Forsters became an interesting commentary on the notes of their former boss and forced contemporaries to take a somewhat different look at the "valiant" and "merciful" behavior of the British during the expedition. At the same time, drawing idyllic pictures of heavenly prosperity on the islands of the southern seas, both naturalists sinned against the truth. Therefore, in everything related to the life, religion and culture of the natives, the notes of Cook, a man of a clear and cold mind, are more accurate, although the works of the Forsters for a long time served as a kind of encyclopedia of the countries of the southern seas and were very popular.
The dispute between the captain and scientists has not been resolved to this day. And now, not a single serious publication about James Cook is complete without quotes or references to the Forsters. Nevertheless, Cook was and remains the brightest star in the constellation of the discoverers of the Earth; he delivered to his contemporaries many accurate, objective observations of nature, customs and mores of the inhabitants of the territories he visited.
It is not difficult to verify this: all three books by J. Cook were published in Russian: “The first circumnavigation of the world by Captain James Cook. Sailing on the "Endeavour" in 1768-1771" (M., 1960), “The second circumnavigation of James Cook. Voyage to the South Pole and around the world in 1772–1775”, (Moscow, 1964), “The Third Voyage of Captain James Cook. Sailing in the Pacific Ocean in 1776-1780. (M., 1971). Despite the remoteness of what is written from our time, books are read with keen interest and carry a lot of information, including about the personalities of the captain himself and the people who surrounded him.
