British India. India - English colony British possessions in India
India was the first state of such a large scale, which was turned into a colony. Taking advantage of the weakness of administrative and political ties, the British relatively easily, without much loss, mainly through the hands of the Indians themselves, seized power and established their dominance here. The accession of India to Britain was not so much a political act, the result of a war or a series of wars, as the result of complex economic and social processes throughout the world, the essence of which was the formation of a world capitalist market and the forcible involvement of colonized countries in world market relations.
Over time, colonial trade outgrew the original framework, it was spurred on by the fact that the rapidly developing English industry at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. was in dire need of markets for factory goods. In the 19th century India finally fell under the control of the British. By 1819, the East India Company established its control over central and southern India, and in 1849 defeated the Punjab army. Indian princes were forced to recognize her authority.
But the interference of the administration of the East India Company in the internal affairs of the country, and above all in the centuries-old agrarian relations (the British administrators clearly did not understand the real and very difficult relationships between the possessing and non-owning strata in India) led to painful conflicts in the country. The influx of factory fabrics and the ruin of many of the aristocrats accustomed to prestigious consumption affected the well-being of Indian artisans. A huge country did not want to put up with this. There was growing dissatisfaction with the new order, which threatened the usual existence of almost everyone. And although due to the weakness of internal ties and the dominance of numerous caste, language, political and religious barriers that separated people, this discontent was not too strong, it nevertheless quickly increased and turned into open resistance to the British authorities. In 1857, the famous sepoy uprising began.
By the beginning of the XIX century. The East India Company managed to create in India a strong and combat-ready army from local residents under the command of English officers. The Indians who served in this army were called sepoys. The company's center of military power was the Bengal sepoy army. Sepoys from high castes painfully felt their lowered position in the army in comparison with the British who served next to them. The ferment in their ranks gradually increased due to the fact that after the conquest of India, the company, contrary to the promise, not only reduced their salaries, but also began to use them in wars outside India - in Afghanistan, Burma, even in China. The immediate cause of the uprising was the introduction in 1857 of new cartridges. They were wrapped in paper soaked in pork or beef fat. By biting it, both Hindus who revered the sacred cow and Muslims who did not eat pork were defiled.
On May 10, 1857, three regiments of sepoys rebelled near Delhi, the ancient capital of India. Other units joined the rebels and soon the sepoys approached Delhi and occupied the city. The British were partly exterminated, partly fled in panic, and the sepoys proclaimed emperor the aged Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah II, who lived out his days on the pension of the company. The purpose of the uprising was to return India to pre-English orders. The uprising lasted almost two years and was crushed by the British.
By rightly evaluating the uprising as a powerful popular outburst of dissatisfaction not only with the rule of the colonialists, but also with a rough breaking of traditional forms of existence, the British colonial authorities were forced to significantly change their policy. Even before the final suppression of the sepoy uprising, the English parliament in 1858 passed a law on the liquidation of the East India Company. India came under the direct control of the British government, and Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India. The country was to be ruled by a governor-general, who soon received the official title of Viceroy of India. The activities of him and the entire administration of British India were controlled and directed by the Ministry of Indian Affairs responsible to Parliament. A number of important reforms followed. The sepoy regiments were eliminated, and the number of British in the army increased markedly. In a special address to the Indian princes, her vassals, Queen Victoria promised to respect their traditional rights. In particular, the right to transfer the principality by inheritance to adopted sons was introduced (if the line of direct inheritance was interrupted). The British crown undertook to pay attention to the existence of a traditional caste system in India. All these reforms were aimed at respecting customary norms and avoiding further discontent and protests from the people of India.
The British are beginning to bet on the formation of a social stratum of Indians loyal to England. Back in 1835, Governor-General Macaulay carried out an education reform, the meaning of which was to begin training personnel for the colonial administration from Indians, to create from them “a stratum, Indian in blood and skin color, but English in tastes, morals and mindset ". In 1857, the British opened the first universities in India - in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. In the future, the number of universities and colleges with teaching in English and in English programs of study increased, not to mention the fact that many Indians, especially from among the wealthy social elite, were educated in England itself, including in its best universities. - Cambridge and Oxford.
In 1861, the British Parliament passed a law on the organization in India of legislative councils under the governor-general and provincial governors. Although the members of these councils were appointed, not elected, it was stipulated by law that half of them should be composed of persons not employed in the service and thus independent of the administration. A judicial reform along the English lines was also carried out. The active introduction of elements of European (British) political culture and practice, European education - all this contributed to the penetration of European ideas, knowledge and experience into India. Over time, the use of English as an official language and uniting representatives of various ethnic groups becomes the norm. English gradually became the main language for all educated India.
The growth of the influence of the British and European culture took place against the general background of the strengthening of the position of colonial capital in the country and the corresponding changes in its economy. India exported cotton, wool, jute, tea, coffee, opium, and especially indigo and spices. To ensure a rapid increase in the amount of exported raw materials, the British created plantation farms of the capitalist type. Most important for the transformation of the economy was the industrial development of India and the export of capital that stimulated it.
The British were actively engaged in the construction of railways and the creation of an initial industrial infrastructure - a network of banks, communications enterprises, plantations, etc., which contributed to the emergence of numerous national industrial enterprises, including handicraft production at manufactory-type enterprises. In the 19th century the first Indian workers appeared: by the end of the century, their number ranged from 700 to 800 thousand. Working conditions were very difficult, the working day lasted 15-16 hours, which contributed to the intensification of the labor movement. Numerous strikes of workers led to the emergence of primitive factory legislation: in 1891 it was forbidden to use the labor of children under 9 years old in factories, the length of the working day was gradually reduced (at the beginning of the 20th century to 12-14 hours).
Oriented towards England and European values, the educated part of the population, who opposed obsolete remnants and for the reform of the traditional foundations of religious culture, gradually consolidated. The Indian National Congress (INC), established in 1885, became the spokesman for the interests of this Indian intellectual elite. Over time, he became the banner of the struggle for the democratic transformation of traditional India.
The British Empire is a state that owned a huge number of colonies. India is one of the British colonies. In this lesson, you will learn how India became a colony of Great Britain, how hard it fought for independence and finally got it. And also get acquainted with the outstanding Indian figure Mahatma Gandhi, learn about the sepoy uprising and the Indian National Congress.
Rice. 2. Fort William - the first bastion of the East India Company in eastern India ()
England established economic control over India because she needed sources of raw materials and additional funds that could be obtained from Indian citizens through a system of taxation. This system has actually turned into a robbery of the Indian population. For example, in 1769-1770 there was a terrible famine in Bengal(Fig. 3). It was connected with the fact that the British pumped out all the resources from India, such as grain and other foodstuffs. During this famine, at least 10 million people died in India. Such waves of famine swept over India regularly.
Rice. 3. Famine in Bengal (1769-1770) ()
The British were interested in spreading their influence as widely as possible. They waged active wars with Nepal and Bhutan, annexed Burma.
In 1838-1842. the Anglo-Afghan war during which Emir Dost Mohammad Khan was captured. In 1878-1880. the second Anglo-Afghan war took place. It did not formally lead to the liquidation of the independence of this state, however, it placed Afghanistan under British control. This control was all-encompassing.
In India, despite the existence of rajas and padishahs (the title of Eastern Muslim sovereigns), the British controlled absolutely everything.
Delhi was captured by the British East India Company in 1803. The padishah was offered a deal: he receives a certain salary, which he was paid regularly and was quite solid, in exchange for renunciation of political influence in the state. The padishah agreed to such conditions, because, in fact, he had no choice. As a result, with the formal preservation of the power of the Great Moghuls, the British began to rule the country.
Until 1911, the main city of India was Calcutta(Fig. 4). It was an important city from an economic point of view, as well as the largest port in India, through which it was most convenient to communicate with Britain (Fig. 5).
Rice. 4. Government House in Calcutta ()
Rice. 5. Port in Calcutta ()
The Indian population did not like that the real political power in the country belongs to the British. But during the first half of the 19th century, there were no serious unrest in India. Local rajas formally continued to control their principalities and suppress any protests, no matter how radical they were.
But in 1857 a powerful uprising was raised,most important and significant. It went down in history as sepoy uprising(Fig. 6). It is considered one of the first measures to achieve the independence of India. Sepoys are local military. It is generally accepted that out of approximately 300,000 British soldiers, only 20,000 were natives of Britain. All the rest were local residents. In fact, the sepoys took power into their own hands. They forced Padishah BahadurII, who was 82 years old, to sign a decree on the restoration of real imperial power. That is, they demanded from Bahadur II to abandon the agreement with the British, according to which his power in the country was eliminated.
Rice. 6. Sepoy uprising in 1857 ()
In response to the actions of the sepoys, the British brought additional troops into India. In 1858, these detachments stormed Delhi., and Shah BahadurIIwas in captivity.
The sepoy uprising was crushed in the most brutal way(Fig. 7). Mass executions have become a familiar element in the suppression of speeches for the local population of India.
Rice. 7. Shooting sepoys ()
However, during the sepoy uprising, the British drew conclusions for themselves in relation to India.
In the same 1858 when the uprising was finally crushed, an act was adopted "On the Better Government of India". According to this act, the power of the British East India Company in India ceased. India was turning into an ordinary colony of England. In fact, this meant that direct British rule was introduced in India. That is, from that moment on, it was no longer possible to shift the blame for the failures of British colonization on the trading company.
With the adoption of this act, the economic development of India received a new impetus. But the development was one-sided. Only factories for processing raw materials were built in the country: cotton and jute factories. The railways that the British began to build were focused on exporting raw materials to ports and from there to Great Britain or other British colonies. But even this economic development must have contributed to the progress of social relations in India.
It was at this time India is beginning to be called "the main diamond in the British crown." However, the price for this diamond had to be paid very high. In India, the British used the "divide and conquer" method of government. They, as before, relied on the power of the rajas, who from time to time turned against each other. They handed out lands, political privileges, but at the same time they played on contradictions, of which there were many in India. In addition to ethnic, there were also religious contradictions in India. This is due to the existence of states with different religions: some were dominated by Hindus, while others were dominated by Muslims.
Concerning social relations, working conditions in India were appalling, while labor laws already existed in England. The norm in India was the 80-hour work week. This means that the working day lasted more than 10 hours, even if there were no days off.
The local Indian intelligentsia still did not agree that Britain was using its colony in this way. In 1885, the intelligentsia decided to unite in order to start a struggle for self-government. In 1885, the Indian National Congress Party was created (it exists to this day, only with a changed name, and is the ruling one). The leaders of this party demanded for India self-government. This term in local languages sounds like Swaraj. India had little chance of obtaining this self-government, because then all the economic power in India would have passed into the hands of the local bourgeoisie, which England could not allow.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the leader of the INC (Indian National Congress) party became Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi(Fig. 8). In India, he received the nickname Mahatma - "great soul." He continued the struggle for the unification of the country and for its self-government. To do this, he used the experience of the struggle of other countries. The events in Russia had a great influence on the Indians (meaning the revolutions of 1905, and then the February and October revolutions of 1917).
India was the first and, in fact, the only state of such a large scale (more precisely, even a group of states united by a civilization that united them, a religious tradition and a common social and caste principles of the internal structure), which was turned into a colony. Taking advantage of the weakness of administrative and political ties characteristic of India, the British relatively easily, without much cost and loss, even mainly through the hands of the Indians themselves, seized power and established their dominance. But as soon as this was achieved (in 1849, after the victory over the Sikhs in the Punjab), a new problem arose for the conquerors: how to manage a gigantic colony? Before the former conquerors, there was no such problem. Without further ado, all of them, up to the Great Mughals, ruled as it was determined for centuries and is clear to everyone. But the British were a fundamentally different structure, which, moreover, was on a steep rise and made ever more decisive and far-reaching demands for its successful development. In a sense, the problem was similar to the one that Alexander solved after his conquest of the Middle East: how to synthesize our own and others, West and East? But there were new circumstances, fundamentally different from antiquity. The fact is that the accession of India to Britain was not so much a political act, the result of a war or a series of wars, but a consequence of complex economic and social processes throughout the world, the essence of which was the formation of a world capitalist market and the forcible involvement of colonized countries in world market relations. .
Hardly at first, at first, did the British colonialists think about the above problem. Colonization was carried out by the hands of the East India Company, which aspired primarily to active trade, huge profits, and high rates of enrichment. But in the course of trade operations and in the name of more and more guaranteed security, foreign property was seized, new lands were seized, and successful wars were waged. Colonial trade more and more obviously outgrew its original framework, it was spurred on by the fact that the rapidly growing English capitalist industry at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. already in dire need of ever-increasing markets for factory goods. India was the ideal place for this effort. It is not surprising that, under changing circumstances, Indian affairs gradually ceased to be the prerogative of the company, or at any rate only the company. From the end of the 18th century, especially after the trial of W. Hastings, the first Governor-General of India (1774-1785), the activities of the company began to be controlled by the government and parliament in an ever-increasing volume.
In 1813, the company's monopoly on trade with India was officially abolished, and in 15 years after that, the import of cotton factory fabrics quadrupled. An Act of Parliament of 1833 further limited the functions of the company, leaving it largely the status of an administrative organization that practically ruled India, and now under the very strict control of the London Board of Control. India, step by step, became more and more obviously a colony of Great Britain, turned into a part of the British Empire, into the pearl of its crown.
But the final part of the colonization process proved to be the most difficult. The intervention of the company's administration in the internal affairs of the country, and above all in the centuries-old agrarian relations (the British administrators clearly did not understand the real and very difficult relationships between the possessing and non-owning strata in India) led to painful conflicts in the country. The influx of factory fabrics and the ruin of many of the aristocrats accustomed to prestigious consumption affected the well-being of Indian artisans. In a word, the habitual norm of relations that had been functioning for centuries was cracking at the seams, a painful crisis manifested itself more and more clearly in the country.
A huge country did not want to put up with this. There was growing dissatisfaction with the new order, which threatened the usual existence of almost everyone. And although due to the weakness of internal ties and the dominance of numerous ethno-caste, linguistic, political and religious barriers that separated people, this discontent was not too strong, let alone sufficiently organized, it nevertheless quickly increased and turned into open resistance to the British authorities. An explosion was brewing.
One of the important immediate causes that provoked it was the annexation by the Governor-General Dalhousie in 1856 of the large principality of Oudh in the north of the country. The fact is that along with the lands officially and directly subordinate to the administration of the company, there were 500-600 large and small principalities in India, the status and rights of which were very different. Each of the principalities was connected with the administration of the company by a special contractual act, but at the same time their number gradually decreased due to the liquidation of those where the line of direct inheritance was interrupted or a state of crisis set in. Audh was annexed to the lands of the company under the pretext of "bad management", which caused sharp discontent among the local Muslim population (talukdars), who were strongly affected by this decision, as well as the privileged zamindars of the Rajputs.
The center of the company's military power was the Bengal army of sepoys, two-thirds recruited from the Rajputs, Brahmins and Jats of Oudh. Sepoys from these high castes were especially painfully aware of their lowered position in the army compared to the British who served next to them. The ferment in their ranks gradually increased due to the fact that after the conquest of India, the company, contrary to what had been promised, not only reduced their salaries, but also began to use them in wars outside India - in Afghanistan, Burma, even in China. The last straw and the immediate cause of the uprising was the introduction in 1857 of new cartridges, the winding of which was smeared with beef or pork fat (by biting it, both Hindus who revered the sacred cow and Muslims who did not eat pork were desecrated). Outraged by the punishment of those who opposed the new patrons, on May 10, 1857, three regiments of sepoys rebelled at Merath near Delhi. Other units joined the rebels and soon the sepoys approached Delhi and occupied the city. The British were partly exterminated, partly fled in panic, and the sepoys proclaimed emperor the aged Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah II, who lived out his days on the pension of the company.
The uprising lasted almost two years and was ultimately drowned in blood by the British, who managed to rely on the help of the Sikhs, Gurkhas and other forces who feared the revival of the Mughal empire. Rightly evaluating the uprising as a powerful popular outburst of discontent not only with the rule of the colonialists, but also with a rough breaking of the traditional forms of existence of many sections of Indian society, the British colonial authorities were forced to seriously think about how to proceed. The question was what methods and means to achieve the destruction of the traditional structure. Only one thing was clear: a sharp violent breaking is unacceptable here; it should be replaced by a gradual and carefully thought-out transformation - with a focus, of course, on the European model. Actually, the subsequent policy of the British in India came down to this.
On the Indian territories, about which in Europe in the XV century. there were legends about the land of miracles, at the beginning Catholic missionaries began to penetrate, and the colonialists came after them. The first colony was founded in Goa by the Portuguese. True, neither the Portuguese nor the French could withstand competition from the third European power - Great Britain.
The English East India Company, established in the early years of the 17th century, eventually seized all power in India, including control over trade relations, military campaigns, and political events. Along the entire coast of India, the British created fortified trading posts - the future large Indian cities of Bombay, Calcutta, Madras.
The growing energy of Europe rushed to the East, especially to the territory of India, at the very moment when the once great state was noticeably weakened politically.
Torn apart by the struggle of the new emerging states, India was unable to offer worthy resistance to the British. If at the end of the XVII century. the British suffered several defeats in a row from the troops of the Mughal emperors, and in 1690 the Mughals laid siege to Madras, then with the weakening of the empire, the British began to achieve more and more military successes. The formidable army of the Marathas, being quite a worthy force in the struggle for power in India, was significantly thinned as a result of strife between the leaders. The British gradually began to win victories over each of them individually, while they would hardly have defeated a single Maratha.
In 1757, the British commander Robert Clive, with the help of treachery and intrigue, managed to win the battle of Plassey, capture Bengal and Bihar. Many scholars of Indian history believe that this year can be considered the beginning of the founding of the British colony in India.
In 1764, the British captured Oudh, which for several decades opposed the seizure of Indian territories by the East India Company.
As a result of the Anglo-Maratha, Anglo-Sikh and Anglo-Mysore wars victorious for Great Britain, as well as thanks to the British policy of bribery and blackmail of local rulers, all state associations of India gradually fell under the rule of the colonialists. Having defeated the Mysores, the British captured South India and made the former independent principalities of Mysore and Hyderabad their vassals. Having won a victory over the Marathas, they subjugated Maharashtra and the territories of Northern India to their power. After the defeat of the Sikhs, the East India Company became the owner of the Punjab, and later of the whole of India, and in 1852 Burma was annexed to the British colonial possessions.
Despite the collapse of the Mughal empire, India was in a fairly prosperous state before the beginning of British rule, and only the British invaders led to complete chaos in the country. According to the descriptions of contemporaries, at the beginning of the XIX century. India was like Central Europe during the Thirty Years' War.
By 1818, all the major Maratha leaders in Central India recognized the supreme power of the East India Company and the British began to completely own Indian lands, leading the country through established government bodies or through puppet princes through the so-called "subsidiary agreements".
From Muslim merchants from India, spices and various goods came to Europe that could not be found in Europe. Many merchants wanted to find a sea let in this country. The British also joined in trying to find India in the 15th century. In an attempt to find this country, they discovered the island of Newfoundland, explored the east coast of Canada and discovered North America. And already in 1579, Thomas Stevens became the first Englishman to come to India.
Start of colonization
The first English East India Company was organized in 1600. By decree of Elizabeth I, a joint-stock company was created, designed to establish trade in India and colonize it. The first trading trips were directed to the Indian archipelago, rich in spices, but soon the first trading agency was organized by the British in Masulipatam.
In 1689, the company decided to obtain territorial possessions in India. To monitor the conduct of hostilities, as well as to declare peace or war, the Governor-General of India was appointed.
War with France
The only serious rivals of the British were the French and the Dutch, who also fought among themselves. Until 1746, the French and English colonies coexisted peacefully, but their relationship changed. The focus shifted from trading goals to political ones. The struggle for primacy began, the governors brought troops from Europe and recruited natives. They also got involved in wars with native possessions and quickly proved the superiority of the European army.
Their first clash in India happened in 1746 in the Carnatic and ended in the defeat of England. In this clash, the British lost Madaras, their only possession in the south was Fort St. David. In 1748, the British besieged Pondicherry, the main French possession, but the siege was unsuccessful. With the help of the peace treaty in Aachen, the British regained Madaras. The French governor Dupley decided to make a French empire in India. He placed his candidacies on the thrones of Hyderabad and Arcot, thus temporarily earning prestige in the south. The British put forward their candidacy for the throne of Arcot, this was the beginning of a new war. Neither side was able to win from 1750 until 1760, but in 1761 the British defeated the French at the Battle of Vandivash, captured Pondicherry and the French surrendered.
At the end of the 18th century, Parliament began to intervene more and more often in the affairs of the East India Company and in 1858 a law was passed according to which the power in the colony belonged to the representative of England in the status of Viceroy and the lands seized by the British became known as British India.
sepoy uprising
For successful military operations, troops were needed and the East Indian colony began to use sepoys - specially trained Indian warriors.
The main reason for the rebellion of the sepoys was the very fact of colonization. The spread of English power, the transition to a new system of life, the huge taxes levied by the British, the inaccessibility of high positions for the natives in the service of the company.
The uprising began on May 10, 1857 at a military camp in Meerut. The sepoys freed the captives from prison and began to beat all the Europeans they met, and then went to Delhi, which they captured by the morning along with Aud and Lower Bengal.
The cities of Punjab, Madaras and Bombay and the Mohammedan state of Hyderabad remained loyal to the English government. A month later, the British began to besiege Delhi and after 6 days took the city, Lucknow was also liberated from the rebels.
Although the main city was taken and the main part of the rebellion was suppressed, the uprisings in various parts of India continued until 1859.
World War I
India itself was not affected by hostilities, but the soldiers of the Indian army participated in hostilities in Europe, Asia and Africa.
The largest Indian army was sent to Mesopotamia in 1914. There, the soldiers were sent inland, but in 1915 they were defeated at Ctesophon and were forced to retreat to El Kut. There, the Indians were besieged by Ottoman troops. In April 1916 they surrendered. Later, additional Indian units arrived in Mesopotamia, and in March 1917 they captured Baghdad. After that, they were part of the battles until the Armistice of Mudros.
In March 1915, Indian troops took part in the Neuve Chapelle offensive, in the autumn most Indian units were sent to Egypt.
The war brought many changes to India. Since 1916, the colonial authorities of Britain made concessions to the demands of the Indians, abolished the excise tax on cotton and began to appoint Indians to officer positions in the army, to award princes with awards and honorary titles. The end of the war brought economic changes. Taxes rose, unemployment increased, and there were food riots. The international position of the country has grown and Indian politicians have demanded the expansion of local government in the country.
The Second World War
In 1939, Lord Litlingow, Viceroy of India, declared war on Germany without consulting the Indian Congress. Hindus in high positions resigned in protest against this decision.
In August 1942, Mahatma Gandhi demanded the withdrawal of all British from Indian territory, but was imprisoned, and riots broke out in the country. They were put down within 6 weeks, but riots continued to flare up until 1943.
Later, influence passed to Subhas Bose, who had left the congress earlier. He collaborated with the Axis in an effort to free India from British influence. With the support of Japan, he organized the Indian National Army. At the end of 1945, soldiers of the Indian National Army were tried, this caused massive protests.
In 1946 new elections were held. It was decided to divide India, the Muslims demanded the creation of British India as an Islamic national home. Clashes broke out between Hindus and Muslims.
In September, a new government is appointed, in which the Hindu Jawaharlal Nehru was chosen as prime minister.
The British government decided that it could no longer govern India, in which mass unrest was gaining momentum and began to withdraw its army from the country.
On August 15, India was declared an independent state, part of the country had been separated the day before and was called Pakistan.
