Ancestors of the modern Indians of Peru 4. Origin of the Indians
The study of mitochondrial DNA of Indians from the ancient burial grounds of South America specified the time of separation of the indigenous inhabitants of the New World from the population of Siberia. It has been established that this process coincided with the last glacial maximum (17–28 thousand years ago). Scientists have been able to confirm that the South American Indians are direct descendants of the first inhabitants of Beringia, who quickly reached their future homeland, moving along the Pacific coast. Almost from the first steps this movement was accompanied by a sharp increase in the population. But the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century led to the decline and collapse of the indigenous populations of South America.
Plots based on Bayesian probability indicate a sharp increase (60 times) in effective population size (see: Effective population size) between 16 and 13 thousand years ago (Fig. 5). Rapid demographic growth was accompanied by the emergence of new branches. Although the authors did not conduct a special study on this subject, they suggest that child lines arose immediately after the settlement of new territories as a result of mutual isolation between close groups due to the appearance of geographical or even social barriers.
The first stage of the settlement of America played a major role in the formation of the modern gene pool of the indigenous South American population. However, the absence of ancient haplotypes in modern populations suggests the existence of some additional stage of depopulation, otherwise it is impossible to explain the disappearance of these variants at the present time. To understand this, the researchers additionally modeled several demographic scenarios that could explain the combination of demographic growth during the initial stages of settlement and subsequent decline in numbers. Most of the possible scenarios were discarded. For example, the assumption of a population decline during the expansion of the Incas, who pursued an active policy of resettlement of conquered peoples, was not confirmed. The only reliable scenario explains the disappearance of ancient haplotypes by the demographic collapse of South American Indians during European colonization.
First of all, the depopulation of the indigenous population of South America may have been somewhat overestimated. If in the Pampas or Patagonia the extinction of the Indians really took place intensively, then in the Central Andes this process was not so dramatic. According to other studies, the local Indian component in the population of Bolivia clearly prevailed over the components of the newcomer population (see: P. Toboada-Echalar et al., 2013. The genetic legacy of the pre-colonial period in contemporary Bolivians), and the size of the two largest groups - Aymara and Quechua - exceeds several million people. Therefore, it is surprising how individual gene variants could disappear from such large populations even during an episode of population decline. This would be possible somewhere in the small populations of the Amazon or Tierra del Fuego, but not in the densely populated region of the Andes.
The second thing that deserves close attention is the absence of haplogroup D4h3 in samples from South American burial grounds. This haplogroup is convincingly associated with the first waves of migrations to South America for several reasons:
1) its range is connected with the Pacific coast, i.e., it is superimposed on the zone of the coastal route through which the first ancestors of the South American Indians arrived (Fig. 6),
2) its daughter branches are very old in South America (see: U. A. Perego et al., 2009. Distinctive Paleo-Indian migration routes from Beringia marked by two rare mtDNA haplogroups),
3) it was discovered in the oldest burial ground 10,000 years ago in the On Your Knees cave in the Alexander Archipelago, located close to Alaska (see: B. M. Kemp et al., 2007. Genetic analysis of early holocene skeletal remains from Alaska and its implications for the settlement of the Americas), that is, close to the starting point of the movement of South American Indians.
All this is consistent with the scheme of the settlement of South America, which is given in the article under discussion. Therefore, the absence of the D4h3 haplogroup in the analyzed burial grounds is very strange.
But, if these controversial points can be left for future researchers to decide, then, summarizing the results of the work under discussion, it must be said that the authors clarified many controversial issues of the settlement of America. The localization of the ancestral home of all Native Americans in East Beringia during the last glacial maximum has been convincingly proven. Its isolation from the ancient populations of Siberia took place in an interglacial refuge in the region of western Alaska. The origin of most South American Indians, at least in the western part of the continent, is unequivocally connected with the first inhabitants of Beringia. The ancestors of the South American Indians were most likely the first Native American group to leave the Alaskan refuge as soon as it was possible. The exit from the Beringian ancestral home was almost immediately accompanied by a powerful population growth. European colonization led to an episode of demographic decline, although its magnitude in the case of the Andean highlands requires further clarification. Taken together, these results provided invaluable insights into the past of the Native American population.
The natives of America are the Indians. They have a unique and tragic fate. Its uniqueness lies in the fact that this people managed to survive the period of settlement of the mainland by Europeans. The tragedy is connected with the conflict between the Indians and the white race. Where do Indians live today? How is their life going? Let's consider in more detail.
Excursion into history
In order to plunge into the life of the Indians, you must first realize who they are. For the first time in Europe, they heard about them only at the turn of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, even from the school history course, many remember the famous journey of Christopher Columbus, when, in search of India, he reached the coast of America.
Sailors immediately dubbed the local population redskins, and by the name of the area - Indians. Although it was a completely different continent, different from the one they wanted to find. So the name was fixed and became common for a huge number of peoples inhabiting two continents. Then to the question of where the Indians live, any educated European would answer that in India.
For the inhabitants of Europe, of course, the found mainland was a valuable find, the road to the New World. However, for many Indian tribes living on these lands for about forty thousand years, such an acquaintance was not necessary at all. The arriving Europeans did not want to consolidate relations or bring something new to the life of the indigenous population - they only treacherously took away the lands, thereby pushing the legitimate inhabitants far into the interior of the state, occupying and equipping territories suitable for European life.
Over time, the Indian tribes were completely pushed beyond the edge of their original habitat, and their territories were settled by Europeans who arrived from across the ocean in search of India.
Nineteenth century Indian history
By the middle of the 19th century, Novaya Zemlya was so colonized by Europeans that there were practically no free lands suitable for the habitation of the Redskins. Where did the Indians live during this period of time? It was then that the concept of land reservation appeared. Reserved lands were areas ill-suited for agriculture. Europeans did not need such lands, so they were given to local tribes.
Conflicts have always arisen between two different cultures and mentalities, which sometimes escalate into open clashes with victims and the wounded. According to an oral agreement between the Europeans and the Indian tribes, it was decided that the Indians have every right to live on the reservation and can receive food and everything they need from the whites. But such charity was extremely rare.
The agreement also included a division of the land so that each Indian would be given 180 acres. It is worth recalling that this land was very bad for agriculture. The nineteenth century was a turning point in the fate of the Indians - they lost their rights and almost half of their mainland.
New history: a changed attitude towards the Indians
In the first half of the twentieth century, United States legislation made North American Indians citizens of the state. A few decades later, such an action on the part of the authorities was a huge step towards reconciliation between the warring peoples. The attitude towards this people was radically revised.
The places where the American Redskins live, like themselves, began to interest Americans not on the basis of profit, but because it is part of the cultural heritage of their own country. In the United States, a spirit of pride in resilient natives emerged. Most citizens began to have ideas of encouraging the Indians for their tolerance, the Americans were eager to correct the unfair treatment that their ancestors bestowed on the indigenous population of America.
Where do Indians live today?
Currently, the red-skinned population of America lives in two main geographical areas of the mainland - these are North and Latin America. It should be noted here that Latin America does not represent only South America - it also includes Mexico and a number of islands.
It is worth analyzing the geographical features of the settlement of the Indians separately.
North American Indians
Where do the Indians of North America live today? Recall that this territorial region consists of two large-scale states, namely the United States and Canada.
Indian habitats:
- subtropics in the presented territory;
- coastal regions of the northwestern part of the mainland;
- California is a famous Indian state;
- southeastern United States;
- territory of the Great Plains.
The main activities of the Indians are hunting, fishing, gathering and harvesting of valuable fur. More than 60% of modern Indians live in major states and rural areas throughout the United States. The rest, as a rule, live on the territories of the state reservation.
California is a famous Indian area
Western cinema and popular fiction very often paint a picture of the Indians living here - in California. This does not mean that country music and films are deceiving: the same facts are provided by statistics.
American censuses over the past decades confirm that the majority of modern Indians live in California. It is worth noting that the representatives of this race in this metropolis have long been mixed with the rest of the population. Over the years, most of them have lost the knowledge of their native language. For example, more than 68% of Indians today do not know any language other than English. Only 20% speak perfectly the dialect of their own people, as well as the state language.
It should be noted that the Californian Redskins have certain benefits, for example, for education and admission to higher educational institutions. But the majority of Indians do not use the benefits provided. Today, about 65% of children from Indian families receive secondary education, and only 10% receive a bachelor's degree.
Indian settlements in Latin America
There are Indian settlements in South America:
- The terrain of almost all of Latin America is inhabited by the heirs of the Mayan tribes, the Aztecs and those who lived in the geographical area of Central America before the European invasion.
- A separate unity is represented by the Indians of the Amazon basin, the main difference of which lies in their peculiar behavior, the preservation of traditions and indigenous laws.
- Such communities as the Indians of Patagonia and the Pampas also live in this territory.
- Indigenous inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego.
Peruvian Indians
Peru is one of the Latin American countries located on the Pacific Northwest coast of South America. Why is this area important to the Indians? It was on the territory of the state that the capital of one of the most influential countries of the indigenous Indians, the Inca Empire, was located. The Indians of South America still consider the country their homeland.
That is why enchanting festivities are held annually in Peru in honor of the day of the Peruvian Indians. This day is a date for the memory and preservation of the cultural traditions of bygone days. Indian Memorial Day is one of the most colorful and significant holidays for city residents. A large fair, a demonstration of national cuisine, an interesting festival and live music in every corner of Peru awaits guests and the local population.
In our time, it is quite difficult to single out certain geographical areas where the Indians live. Most of the representatives of the people live together on their pushed back lands, preserving cultural traditions, religion and valuable life guidelines. Others have firmly assimilated with the European population, began to fully adhere to American traditions and legislation, and live in megacities. Most of the latter have forgotten their native language and the history of the great people.
On the pages of the Vamvigvam store, we talked about all the houses of the Indians and other nomadic tribes - wigwams, tipis, yarangas, etc.
It is time to learn more about the residents of these dwellings themselves.
Indians is a common name given to the indigenous population of North America. The only exceptions are the Aleuts and Eskimos. The emergence of this name originates in the misconception of the first visitors from Europe, such as Christopher Columbus and others. They believed that the continent they had discovered was India, not America.
According to their anthropological type, the Indians belong to the Americanoid race. At the moment, the number of Indians on both American continents already exceeds 75 million people, taking into account those Indians who have lost their belonging to any tribe. It is worth recalling that only in the 60s of the last century this figure was 30 million. Now there are approximately 1000 different Indian tribes and peoples, and this number, despite the general growth of the Indian population, has decreased: at the end XV centuries, about 2200 different nationalities, tribes and species were distinguished.
According to the data of numerous studies that have been conducted on this topic, the ancestors of the Eskimos and Indians came to American soil from Asia and Altai. In ancient times, on the site of the Bering Strait, there was the Bering Bridge, which was a fairly wide isthmus that allowed free migration between continents. The Indians settled and settled on the new land for many thousands of years. The similarity between the Indian tribes living in America, as well as the Chukchi and other peoples who live on the territory of Eurasia, is quite noticeable, and this is expressed not only in lifestyle, but also in many other ways. For example, scientists were able to establish that the DNA of the indigenous people of Altai and the Indians living on a completely different continent are somewhat similar due to the presence of unique mutations in them.
Before colonization began on the territory of America, most of the Indians lived in tribes dominated by the communal-tribal system. In some tribes there was a matriarchy, and in some - a patriarchy, but the system was preserved. At that time, only in North America there were 400 tribes that spoke their own unique languages and dialects and did not have any written language. In 1825, thanks to its leader, Sequoyah, a syllabary alphabet was created in the Cherokee tribe, and two years later the first newspaper of the tribe appeared, which was called the Cherokee Phoenix.
However, not all tribes were so educated: the steppe Indians used pictographic writing. Also in use was inter-tribal jargon, which was used for trade: it was called "mobile". Sign language was also used by the Indians. Wampums, which are beads made from shells of mollusks, acted as money.
When Columbus discovered America, the new continent was already inhabited by people. These people, called "Indians" by the conquerors, differed from Europeans, and from Asians, and from Africans. Due to the lack of factual data, historians and archaeologists for a long time could not decide from whom the Indians originated. The mystery began to be revealed only in recent years, when geneticists came to the aid of historians. Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Deputy Director of the Institute of General Genetics Ilya Zakharov-Gesehus spoke about the latest discoveries of geneticists studying human races in an interview with Alexander Kostinsky and Doctor of Biology, one of the authors of the Port-Folio website, which is friendly to us, Alexander Markov
The settlement of America, the origin of the American Indians is one of the mysteries of ancient human history. There is a lot of controversy over this historical mystery. Archeology has been able to obtain only very scarce information. It would seem that this topic is forever doomed to remain the subject of endless debate. But unexpectedly, historians received help from geneticists, from biologists who study the hereditary information recorded in genes. It turned out that in the genes of modern people one can find indications of the events of ancient human history.
Some time ago, in one of the broadcasts of radio "Freedom", dedicated to the history of the rescue of the breed of Tuvan shepherd dogs, it was told about an expedition to Tuva led by Zakharov-Gezekhus. One of the objectives of the expedition was to collect materials on the genetic characteristics of the population of this region. This information should have made it possible to characterize the gene pool of Tuvans.
The data obtained were then supplemented with material collected in other regions of southern Siberia and Central Asia: the Altai Mountains, Khakassia, Buryatia, and Mongolia. As a result of the research, an unexpected result was obtained: of the modern Asian peoples, it was the Tuvans who were genetically closest to the American Indians.
The method that led to the fact that now we can say that, apparently, the American Indians come from the region of Tuva, Sayan, Altai, was as follows.
The human genome contains several parts that are passed down through generations in different ways. Every person receives chromosomes from their father and mother. Another part of the genome that has proven to be very useful for research is called mitochondrial DNA. It has been studied since the late 1980s. This part of the genome is transmitted strictly through the female line. That is, a woman passes her mitochondrial DNA to her children, sons and daughters, but mitochondrial DNA is not transmitted from sons to the next generation. All people differ slightly from each other in mitochondrial DNA. This, by the way, is based on forensic research. But in this study, it was not the individual characteristics of mitochondrial DNA that were important, but more general racial characteristics. The largest human races living on different continents have their own sets of mitochondrial DNA variants. Not just one option, but a certain spectrum. The narrowest range of these options was among the American Indians. It has been found that the American Indians have four common types of mitochondrial DNA and one very rare. The first four were designated A, B, C, D, and the rare (less than 3%) type was X.
In Asia, there are 10 - 15 variants. But unlike Europeans, many Asian peoples have A, B, C, D variants, which are said to be most common among American Indians. When this was discovered, genetic arguments were thus obtained in favor of the hypothesis of the settlement of America precisely from Asia.
The next question was: which of the living Asian peoples are genetically closest to the Amerindian Indians? (The Amerindians are an abbreviation for "American Indians"). Researchers first of all began to study the peoples of northern Siberia, which are territorially located closest to America. It is believed that the settlement went through the Bering Strait, which did not exist 20-15 thousand years ago. There was land and it was possible to cross over to America by dry land. The study of the Siberian peoples showed that they have these "American" variants, but not all of them. Some Siberian peoples - one or two options, one of the peoples - three options. This means that the Chukchi, Eskimos, Koryaks are not suitable for the ancestors of the American Indians.
It turned out that the highest concentration of all four variants is among Tuvans, somewhere around 70% of the variants. Amerindians have more than 95% of them. That is, the Tuvans turned out to be very similar to the Americans.
The gun that hung on the wall and was supposed to shoot is option X. Its origin was a mystery. It was not found in Asia, but was found in Europe. Subtle analyzes have shown that among the American Indians, the X-variant was not introduced by newcomer Europeans; in one of the works of the Zakharov-Gezekhus group, this variant was found among the Altaians in the Altai Mountains. Moreover, it is also an ancient variant, different from the European one and closer to the American one. Tuvans have not yet found the X-variant.
Thus, in the Altai-Sayan region, covering the Altai Mountains and Tuva, all mitochondrial DNA variants characteristic of the Amerindians are represented, including the X variant, which is not found in any other Asian people. It is assumed that, according to some estimates, 15-20 thousand years ago, some part of the ancient population of Central Asia moved to the northeast, reached Beringia and then moved on to America. The rest of the ancient population of Central Asia remained here and gave rise to modern peoples.
It is difficult to say how quickly the settlers passed through Siberia. But from Beringia, the Indians reached Patagonia and to the very south of South America - a huge distance. That is, the same race, the same tribe, crossed all of America to Tierra del Fuego. Paleontologists have evidence that simultaneously with the settlement of America, a wave of mass extinction of large fauna moved from north to south. That is, they were hunters who exterminated all the largest animals on their way.
One more question: four types of mitochondrial DNA in Amerindians - does this mean that all American Indians are descended from some four women? The answer to this question is, of course, yes. Indians, like any people, come from some tribe, where there were not four women, but, say, forty or more. But if in this ancestral tribe, suppose there were forty women, then 36 of them did not leave female offspring. It turns out that all Amerindians are descended from four or five women and that 70% of Tuvans are descended from these same four women. Made calculations; it turns out that the female progenitor of the C-type of mitochondrial DNA and another female, the progenitor of the D-type, lived in Central Asia about 30 thousand years ago. These calculations are based on the fact that the rate of change of individual chemical units in DNA is more or less known.
At the end of the conversation, it was noticed that there was a very good book translated into Russian, "The Seven Daughters of Eve," by an English geneticist, in which it was shown that almost all Europeans descended from seven women. They lived at different times and in different areas - one in the Balkans, the other in the Middle East; then their descendants mixed up, but at first there were seven of them.
