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The main directions of philosophical thought. The main directions of Russian philosophical thought: a brief description

General characteristics of Renaissance philosophy (main directions of philosophical thought, representatives)

Logic and philosophy

The Renaissance philosophers called the time in question New, associating it with the development of fundamentally different approaches to the development of art and science. The Renaissance is the era of the emergence of capitalist relations, the creation of nation states and absolute monarchies in Western Europe, an era of deep social conflicts. Specificity of the philosophical culture of the Renaissance The philosophical thought of the Renaissance covers three centuries: from early humanism of the 14th century.

General characteristics of Renaissance philosophy (main directions of philosophical thought, representatives).

In science, history is divided into three periods: Ancient, Middle and Modern history. The time in question was called New by Renaissance philosophers, associating it with the development of fundamentally different approaches to the development of art and science.

The Renaissance is the era of the emergence of capitalist relations, the creation of nation states and absolute monarchies in Western Europe, an era of deep social conflicts.

Specifics of the philosophical culture of the Renaissance

The philosophical thought of the Renaissance spans three centuries: from early humanism XIV V. to natural philosophy XVI -beginning XVII centuries It cannot be considered only as a result of the decomposition of medieval scholasticism; it opposes the entire system of medieval philosophy, because it is built and developed on fundamentally different foundations, although this does not mean a complete break between them.

The new philosophical culture was characterized by:

1) anti-scholastic character (although for the state scholasticism remained the official philosophy and its principles were studied in most universities);

2) pantheism as the main principle of worldview;

3) anthropocentrism and humanism.

During the Renaissance, a new style of thinking was developed, which assigned the main role not to the form of expression of an idea, but to its content. The scholastic tradition of creating philosophical works was associated with a dogmatic, “mentor” style of presentation, built on the interpretation of an authoritative, religiously consistent text. Renaissance philosophers opposed this approachliterary-rhetorical genre,designed for educated secular readers, and not just for a highly specialized audience of professional theologians.

They proposed replacing the hierarchical idea of the universe with the concept of a world in which the interpenetration of earthly, natural and Divine principles occurs. Nature was interpreted by them pantheistically, what was the influence of Neoplatonism with its teaching about the World Soul. According to one of the prominent representatives of this direction, Dam, The soul, having descended into the huge mass of nature, pierces and illuminates it, just as the Sun pierces with its rays and illuminates a dark cloud. Thus, the Soul imparts meaning, value and beauty to matter, without which the world would not exist.

The philosophy of the Renaissance is directed towards man,and not to God, which was typical for medieval culture.Augustine the Blessedbelieved that the main content of human life is the pursuit of happiness, and happiness is a person’s knowledge of God and an understanding of his complete dependence on him. Morally valuable, good deeds are characteristic of a minority of people. They owe their impeccable morality to the eternal Divine election of them to salvation. This election is called Divine by grace. It does not depend on human actions, but leads the elect directly to heaven. God himself leads a person to good, but free will can lead a person to sin and evil. The human body is perishable and perishable, subject to the temptations and benefits of the sensory world. In this regard, the soul has superiority over him. The more completely the soul ignores the requests of the mortal body, the better it is for the posthumous destinies of humanity.

During the Renaissance, man himself was considered beautiful and sublime. Such were not only his soul, but also his flesh. Renaissance humanists believed that by granting free will to man, God predetermined his highest destiny “to become his own sculptor and creator.” 1 , strive for limitless improvement of one’s nature.

In general, Renaissance philosophy went through three periods:

I period - humanistic ( XIV - mid. XV century)

Dante Alighieri, Francesco Petrarca, Lorenzo Valla

II period - Neoplatonic (mid. XV - XVI c.) Nicholas of Cusa, Pico della Mirandolla, Paracelsus

III period - natural philosophical ( XVI - beginning XVII c.) Nicolaus Copernicus, Giordano Bruno, Galileo Galilei.

Humanism historically and typologically determined the first period of development of Renaissance philosophy, becoming the core of a new humanistic worldview, which, in the fight against scholasticism, won the right to be philosophy. This approach significantly changed the nature of philosophizing, the sources and style of thinking, and the very appearance of a theoretical scientist.The essence of the new philosophy -anthropocentrism. Man is the leading link in the entire chain of universal existence. The world is the potency of God, but He gave only an impulse, and then Nature reveals itself like a book, and man is the crown of her creation. He himself is the Master. Antiquity honored heroes, the Middle Ages - saints, the Renaissance - Man. And the task of philosophy is not to contrast the divine and natural, spiritual and material in man, but to reveal their harmonious unity.

The first who most clearly and vividly presented these ideas was Dante Alighieri (1265 - 1321). Everything human is made dependent and subordinate to reason.

Another outstanding representative of Renaissance humanism is Francesco Petrarch (1304 - 1374). Lorenzo Valla (1407 - 1457) also belongs to the outstanding humanists. In your dialogue"On pleasure as a true good"he consistently considers three points of view onethical values: Stoic, Epicurean and Christian.

One of the outstanding exponents of the ideas of Neoplatonism in this period was Nicholas of Cusa (1401 - 1464). If medieval scholasticism believed that the goal of human knowledge is the achievement of “divine truth”, which is given once and for all through faith, then Nicholas of Cusa presented the process of knowledge as the achievement of the infinitely perfect, where “all things consist of opposites in varying degrees”

Knowledge is infinitebecause of the infinity of its object and its own incompleteness.

The pantheistic ideas of Neoplatonism of the Renaissance were most evident in Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463 - 1494). The philosopher wrote a treatise, in 900 theses he reflected the level of knowledge achieved by humanity. Picodella Mirandola's general program (the concept of "concord") consists of a general renewal of philosophy through the harmonization of various teachings.

Renaissance pantheists see nature as a kind of living whole, permeated with magical powers. Interesting in this regard are the views of the physician, alchemist and astrologer Paracelsus (Philip Aureola Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim) 1493 -1541). He believed that the processes occurring in the human body are chemical in nature, and therefore both their study and the treatment of diseases should be associated with chemistry.

The ideas of Neoplatonism inspired thinkers to create a holistic philosophical system that opposed medieval scholasticism;

A new picture of the world was proposed, pantheistic in content, although retaining elements of mysticism;

The creation of the concept of man as a microcosm opened the way to understanding his natural essence. It was not completely materialistic and contained recognition of the Divine nature of the human spirit;

The development of the concept of “harmony” of philosophical teachings contributed to the humanistic rethinking of the Christian moral ideal.

Features of natural philosophical thought of the Renaissance appeared:

In the separation of the subject of science from the subject of religion, which contributed to the development of the scientific worldview;

In the formation of the doctrine of pantheism, free from theology, bringing God closer to Nature and dissolving Him in it;

In the development of the theory of knowledge, combining sensory and rational aspects.

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Introduction
The 20th century, on the scale of existence of the written history of mankind, is a relatively small period of time, if we consider it only from the point of view of the hundred years that it includes. However, it is necessary to assess the role and significance of the 20th century in the general history of planet Earth, taking into account its scientific, technical, socio-economic, socio-political spheres of life, as well as its spiritual culture and art, which influence the world.
Numerous literature devoted to the analysis of the 20th century is contradictory and tendentious. This is not surprising, because contemporaries, as a rule, cannot objectively and unbiasedly cover the numerous events of this century and, moreover, predict which of them will have a particularly strong impact on the subsequent history of mankind.
The philosophy of the 20th century is not a tired companion accompanying humanity on its thorny and steep roads; it, together with the entire spiritual culture of the modern world, strives to help a person in his quest for truth, in finding the real, not the false meaning of life, in the search for his Self and realization your creative potential.
Unlike previous eras and even the beginning of the 20th century, modern philosophy does not impose one single point of view on the world, passing it off as the ultimate truth. She has learned to be tolerant and does not punish dissent; moreover, the philosophy of the late 20th century gave people freedom to choose their worldview.
However, this places the responsibility for choosing a worldview on the shoulders of the person himself; modern man is free in his choice, but he is obliged to understand the full extent of responsibility for the future of the planet and the fate of all humanity.
The purpose of this work is to consider the features of the development of philosophy of the 20th century and its main directions; for this purpose, relevant literary sources were studied.
1 The main directions of development of philosophy in the 20th century

1.1 General characteristics of philosophy in the 20th century

The main difference in the development of philosophical thought of the twentieth century is the pluralism of opinions, the diversity of philosophical schools and movements. The development of philosophical problems in two fundamental directions - materialism and idealism - takes on a more distinct expression.
Philosophy follows the path of deepening fundamental ideas about existence, penetrating into the complex structure of matter, making attempts to comprehend human existence, solving problems of social development by combining the results of scientific analysis and social practice.
A feature of philosophical knowledge of the 20th century is its clear determination by the scientific apparatus of modern natural science (computers, computers, methods of mathematical sciences, systems approach, principles of synergetics).
Philosophical knowledge of the 20th century is characterized by an evolution towards the study of problems of the essence and existence of man, relying not only on positivist and Marxist views, but also on the philosophical traditions of Christianity, Buddhism, schools of solipsism and intuitionism, existentialism and other directions that at the beginning of the 20th century were treated as unscientific , mystical and reactionary.
In turn, the most authoritative representatives of these philosophical movements find in positivist and materialist works such provisions that help to understand the essence of human existence more deeply and comprehensively.
The philosophy of the 20th century put forward as the most significant and priority problems of our time a whole cycle of global problems that can be combined into one - this is the problem of the survival of mankind, inextricably linked with a new solution to the eternal question of philosophy - what is the meaning of life and the purpose of man.
In this regard, it becomes clear the desire of philosophers of the second half of the 20th century to move away from vulgar sociological approaches to human existence and their desire to analyze existence through the argumentation of the philosophy of life, existentialism and personalism.
The philosophy of the 20th century rightly believes that science is a significant, but not the only way of understanding the world, providing humanity not only with knowledge, but also with social comfort and personal safety; moreover, the philosophy of the 20th century does not deny either the mystical, or the esoteric, or the ecological, or value approach to the world.
Therefore, the philosophy of the 20th century is not only connected with science, it tries to rethink the mystical teachings of the East, to find meaning in primitive religions and magic, in the long-discarded medieval treatises of alchemists and healers, in social utopias of various times.
1.2 Neopositivism
Neopositivism is one of the main trends in Western philosophy of the 20th century. arose and developed as a philosophical movement that claims to analyze and solve current philosophical and methodological problems put forward by the development of science, in particular the relationship between philosophy and science, the role of sign-symbolic means of scientific thinking, the relationship between the theoretical apparatus and the empirical oasis of science, the nature and function of mathematization and formalization of knowledge.
Being a modern form positivism , neopositivism shares its original philosophical and worldview principles, primarily the idea of denying the possibility of philosophy as theoretical knowledge that considers the fundamental problems of world understanding and performs special functions in the cultural system that are not carried out by special scientific knowledge.
Fundamentally opposing science to philosophy, neopositivism believes that the only possible knowledge is only special scientific knowledge.
For the first time, the ideas of neopositivism received clear expression in the activities of the so-called Vienna circle , on the basis of which the flow was formedlogical positivism.
It was in logical positivism that the main ideas of the neopositivist philosophy of science, which conquered the world in the 1930s and 40s, were formulated with the greatest consistency and clarity. significant popularity among the Western scientific intelligentsia.
The popularity of neopositivism in wide circles of the scientific intelligentsia of the West was determined mainly by the fact that it created the appearance of a simple, clear, connected with the use of modern scientific methods for solving complex and pressing philosophical and methodological problems. However, it was precisely primitivism and straightforwardness that inevitably had to lead and did lead neopositivism to discredit and a deep crisis.
Already in the 1950s. It turned out quite clearly that the “revolution in philosophy” proclaimed by neopositivism does not justify the hopes that were placed on it.
From the 2nd half of the 1950s. neopositivism ceases to exist as a philosophical movement. The neopositivist “revolution in philosophy” came, therefore, to its sad ending, which was predetermined by the inconsistency of its initial principles both in relation to philosophical consciousness and in relation to the nature of science itself.
1.3 Analytical philosophy
Analytical philosophy is a direction of philosophy that became dominant in English-speaking countries in the 20th century.
The vast majority of philosophy faculty members in countries such as USA, UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, as well as Scandinavian countriesdefine themselves as analytical philosophers.
Philosophers of the “analytical” wave are united not so much by the topic or type of philosophical concepts as by common tasks: the study of language in order to identify the structure of thought, achieve a “transparent” correlation between language and reality, a clear distinction between meaningful and empty expressions, meaningful and meaningless phrases.
Within analytical philosophy, two directions are distinguished: the philosophy of logical analysis and the philosophy of linguistic analysis (orlinguistic philosophy).
Adherents of the first are mainly interested in the philosophy and logic of science and adhere to the line of scientism. Supporters of the second direction consider this orientation to be artificial and limiting the philosophical horizon, since philosophy is rooted in real understanding, in life situations, in the mechanisms of natural language and the diverse extra-scientific experience of people.
Between about 1920 and 1950 there was a powerful movement within analytic philosophy known as logical positivism. Philosophers of this direction, M. Schlick, R. Carnap, A. J. Ayer and others, believed that all meaningful statements are either scientifically verifiable statements about the world or purely logical tautologies.
Around 1960, the emphasis shifted, and under Quine's influence, language and logic began to be seen, like the empirical sciences, not simply as a set of tools for analysis, but as a kind of knowledge about reality. As a result, traditional problems returned to the bosom of philosophical analysis: truth, factual correspondence, synthesis of knowledge.
1.4 Philosophical anthropology
Philosophical anthropology is one of the influential areas of social thought of the 20th century. The worldview and the core of all research in philosophical anthropology is man and only man. In this sense, philosophical anthropology can be called an anthropocentric philosophical teaching, since man in it is the central axis around which all other problems of being in the world are framed.
One of the founders of modern philosophical anthropology was the famous German thinker Max Scheler (1874-1928). In a number of his works, he states the crisis in the development of contemporary Western European culture and tries to find and show a way out of this state of crisis.
The philosophical variety of anthropology is maximally concentrated on the idea of human self-awareness, and natural science anthropology (all branches of natural science and genetic psychology) gives only an idea of man as a rather late result of the development of the Earth, differing from the forms that preceded him in the animal world only in the degree of complexity of the combination of energies and abilities that are already found in lower, compared to human, nature.
The task of philosophical anthropology, M. Scheler believes, is to show how all human achievements and deeds flow from the structure of human existence: language, conscience, state, science, myths, ideas and much more that characterizes man.
Biological or naturalistic methodology for the study of man occupies a prominent place in modern philosophical anthropology. This approach is characterized by the fact that when considering the generic essence of man, the patterns inherent in his behavior that develop exclusively in the process of phylogenesis are hypostatized. On this basis, a conclusion is made about the unchangeable biological nature of man.
In other words, a person in philosophical anthropology should be studied not only as a part of the natural and social world, but also as a being who creates and embodies this entire world in a special way.
1.5 Existentialism
Existentialism, direction in 20th century philosophy , focusing its attention on the uniqueness of the irrational existence of man. Existentialism developed in parallel with related trends personalism and philosophical anthropology, from which it differs primarily in the idea of overcoming (rather than revealing) a person’s own essence and a greater emphasis on the depth of emotional nature.
In its pure form, existentialism as a philosophical movement has never existed. The inconsistency of this term comes from the very content of “existence,” since by definition it is individual and unique, meaning the experiences of a single individual, unlike anyone else.
The main category of the philosophy of existentialism is existence . The philosophy of existence reflects the crisis of optimistic liberalism, based ontechnical progress, but powerless to explain the instability, disorder of human life, the inherent feeling of a person fear , despair, hopelessness.
According to the philosophy of existentialism, to realize oneself as"existence" , a person must find himself in a “borderline situation” - for example, in the face of death.
As a result, the world becomes “intimately close” for a person. The true way of knowledge, the way of penetration into the world of “existence” is declared intuition (“existential experience” in Marcel, “understanding” in Heidegger, “existential insight” in Jaspers), which is an irrationalistically interpreted phenomenological method of Husserl.
A significant place in the philosophy of existentialism is occupied by the formulation and solution of the problem of freedom, which is defined as"choice" personality of one of myriad possibilities.
Objects and animals do not have freedom, since they immediately have an essence, essence . A person comprehends his essence throughout his life and is responsible for every action he commits; he cannot explain his mistakes by “circumstances.”
Thus, a person is thought of by existentialists as a “project” building himself. Ultimately, ideal human freedom is freedom of the individual from society.
1.6 Pragmatism
Pragmatism - philosophical course based on practice as criteria truth and meaning significance. Its origin is associated with the name of an American philosopher 19th century Charles Pierce who first formulated"maxim" of pragmatism.
Pragmatism further developed in the works William James, John Dewey and George Santayana.
Attention to pragmatism increased significantly in the second half XX century with the emergence of a new school of philosophy that focused on criticismlogical positivism, relying on his own version of pragmatism.
The main principle of pragmatism proclaims the thesis that each person has his own philosophy and the founder of this philosophy, William James, believed that reality itself has many forms, and the free creativity of each person creates a pluralistic picture of the world.
Each person has his own ways of philosophizing, unique to him, because, from his point of view, “to philosophize means to have an individual way of perceiving and feeling the pulse of cosmic life,” and the philosophical orientation itself is determined by the innate temperament of a person. From the point of view of pragmatists, philosophy is a method of resolving disputes among philosophers based on the practical consequences of our actions.
The basis of pragmatism is the following ma xima : “Let us take into account what practical effect can be associated with a given object, and our understanding of this object will consist in the totality of our knowledge of its practical applications”
Since the late 1930s. P.'s influence in American philosophy begins to wane. With the immigration of a number of European philosophers, other philosophical movements spread. However, while losing its significance as a leading philosophical trend, pragmatism continues to influence the solution of many methodological and logical problems, largely determining the style of political thinking in the United States.
1.7 Personalism
Personalism is a theistic direction of modern philosophy. The name itself indicates the recognition of the individual as the primary creative reality and the highest spiritual value. The world in which a person lives and acts is a manifestation of the creative activity of the supreme personality - God.
The formation of personalism began at the end of the last century, in Russia and the USA. The basic principles of personalist philosophy were formulated by N.A. Berdyaev and L. Shestov. Subsequently, the ideas of personalism were reflected in the work of N.O. Lossky, S.N. Bulgakov, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanova. A special stage in the development of personalism is associated with its spread in France, which was started by Emmanuel Mounier (1905-1950).
The main task for personalism is not a person in general, not even a person as some cognizing I, as it was in Fichte, not a cognizing subject, but a real, concrete and, most importantly, integral personality, consisting of soul and body and capable of knowing, feeling, loving , create, work and be lazy, with all its diverse manifestations.
Therefore, a personality in which all layers of existence intersect - both spiritual and material - turns out to be ontological. Personality must be inscribed in some being, it cannot be closed on itself, it must be raised to a certain personal principle that unites all personalities, i.e. to God. The origins of each person as an individual are in the fact that man is the image and likeness of God, God's creation. That is why a person is a person.
Personalism as a philosophical movement turned out to be close to a fairly large number of Orthodox people, especially those living in the West. Such a person and thinker as V.N. Lossky, considered himself a personalist in philosophy. Some erect his father, N.O. Lossky, to the founders of personalism along with N. Berdyaev and L. Shestov. Personalism, being a certain philosophical trend, does not develop its own school, so many philosophers consider themselves both personalists and existentialists. This is a feature of many modern philosophical trends.
1.8 Rationalism
The teachings of the Spanish philosopher and publicist José Ortega y Gasset hardly fit into the philosophy of the 20th century. The meaning of his philosophy is one of the variants of historicism, but with a pronounced futuristic orientation. He is interested not in what has already been, but in what is not yet, but it can be. “The present does not bother me,” he wrote, “because I already exist in it. The serious thing is the future.” Ortega sought to predict possible prospects in the development of man, culture, and society in the near future.
Ortega y Gasset's rationalism is the doctrine of life as history, which is inseparable from reason and dies without it. The function of the vital mind is self-interpretation of life, which is expressed in the creation of worldviews that determine the value coordinates of human activity.
Modern humanity, according to Ortega y Gasset, is in a grave crisis; moreover, it faces a terrible danger of self-destruction. Ortega dedicated his most famous work, the essay “The Revolt of the Masses,” to understanding this tragic situation. Written in 1930, it was extremely popular, many of its ideas deeply penetrated the culture of the 20th century, and the problems raised remain relevant today.
With great talent and temperament, Ortega expressed one of the most widespread beliefs of our century: man creates the world and himself, the only true reality is the process of historical creation itself, there is nothing outside it and above it. The rationalism of Ortega y Gasset is a hymn to human creativity.
However, any thinker has the right to offer his own view of history. Ortega y Gasset chose his specific aspect of events and phenomena - and in this he is interesting and quite deep. His "Revolt of the Masses" sheds additional light on events in Russia - both those that took place in our country after 1917 and those that are happening now. The picture of the European crisis of the twentieth century, so vividly painted by Ortega, must also be taken into account when we reflect on the historical fate of Russia. For all the uniqueness of Russian culture and history, it cannot be understood outside the context of pan-European and global development.
1.9 Postmodernism
Postmodernism is a complex, rather eclectic and heterogeneous phenomenon that arose in Western European culture in the last quarter of the 20th century. The first postmodern ideas were updated in the late 60s and were associated with critical reflection of the sociocultural and philosophical contexts of modern civilization.
In the literal sense of the word, “postmodernism” is what follows the modern era, modernism, and is associated with the understanding of stylistic changes in European artistic culture. But only in the 80s the term “postmodernism” took root and acquired the status of a commonly used concept.
Many philosophers, sociologists, linguists, philologists, and art historians work today within the framework of postmodernism. The most famous representatives of this trend include Jean-François Lyotard (b. 1924), Jean Baudrillard (b. 1929), Gilles Deleuze (b. 1926), Jean Derrida (b. 1930), Felix Guattari (b. 1930)
Postmodernism is associated with a claim to a change in philosophical paradigms, which is coupled with a deep and versatile criticism of panlogism, rationalism, objectivism and historicism, characteristic of the previous Western European tradition.
Postmodernism is characterized by an attitude towards the world as an object of awareness, the results of which are recorded, first of all, in written forms. Therefore, the world appears as a text.
Due to the fact that the world is understood as an endless, limitless text, an allegory becomes a means of modeling the “field” in which interpretations are carried out, acting as a code for the reflection of modern culture and situation.
Power is analyzed in postmodernism at the micro level, at the level of everyday life, coupled with an attempt to comprehend the means and methods of manipulating a person in the context of sociality. Its analysis is not related to social institutions, the state, personified authority “Power through and through language” - this is the most interesting problem for postmodernism.
While accepting the largely justified criticism of such a cultural phenomenon as postmodernism, it is worth noting its encouraging qualities. Postmodernism rehabilitates the previous artistic tradition, and at the same time realism, academicism, and classicism, which were actively defamed throughout the twentieth century. Postmodernism proves its vitality by helping to reunite a culture's past with its present.

Conclusion
An unbiased and free from ideological assessments analysis of the philosophy of the 20th century shows that the philosophical knowledge of this century has undergone a significant evolution, which can be characterized by a number of distinctive features.
The first, apparently, should be called the departure of philosophy from narrow, predominantly rationalistic philosophizing, as a rule, oriented towards certain political views and religious (atheistic) beliefs.
Over the course of a century, a variety of philosophical movements and schools have moved toward increasingly pluralistic and tolerant philosophizing, based on the principles of meeting or dialogue, not rejecting philosophical theories based on principles unconventional for European philosophy, be it creative intuition, esoteric knowledge, the concept of empathy, and much more. other.
The philosophy of the 20th century formulated a number of new problems for philosophy (technology and man, man and nature, global modeling). These new problems require theoretical resolution, therefore, following philosophical questioning, a number of new sciences arise in the 20th century.
The philosophy of the 20th century significantly expanded its theoretical potential by posing and positively resolving such fundamentally important questions as the relationship between knowledge and understanding (on the basis of which hermeneutics or the doctrine of understanding and interpretation arises), between knowledge and assessment (which contributes to the formulation of axiology as a specific part of the theory knowledge), finally, between knowledge and truth, solving this problem on the basis of scientific data obtained by the natural sciences of the 20th century.
This moved philosophy forward not only in the traditional field - the theory of knowledge or epistemology, but also helped to find new research fields, which made it possible to create fundamentally new concepts for the study of various phenomena - for example, understanding sociology, heuristics, and integrative approach.
List of sources used

Balashov L.E. Philosophy.

3rd ed., corrected. and additional - M.: Dashkov i K, 2009. - 664 p.

Modern worldview of man at the end of the 20th century. requires the development of a holistic philosophical view of the world, taking into account traditions and innovations in philosophy. Our complex “polyphonic” world also requires “cooperative communication” in philosophy, which is manifested in the creation of the World Federation of Philosophical Societies and in the holding of philosophical congresses once every 5 years, at which the exchange of opinions of philosophers from different countries and regions on the most pressing issues of our time takes place.

In recent years, the following have taken place: the XVII World Philosophical Congress in 1983 in Montreal (Canada) under the general theme “Philosophy and Culture”, the XIX World Congress in 1988. in Brighton (Great Britain) on the topic “Philosophical understanding of man” and, finally, the 19th - in 1993 in Moscow on the topic: “Humanity at a turning point: philosophical perspectives.”

What common features of the philosophical process of modern times were reflected by these congresses?

1. Various philosophical directions entered into a kind of dialogue with each other in order to clarify the meaning of life guidelines. There is an increasing interest in joint analysis of ongoing processes, and ideological confrontations have become less significant. Marxist philosophy in this process acted as one of the directions of the world philosophical process, aimed at dialogue with other philosophical directions.

2. Cardinal social changes in the world, which have led to an essentially unipolar world, strengthen the development of integration processes, and therefore the prognostic-constructive function of philosophy, aimed at developing new ideas that comprehend the trends of transforming humanity into an integral system.

3. A characteristic feature of modern philosophy is the pluralism (plurality) of philosophical schools, reflecting many opinions and the search for many ways to solve complex social problems.

4. The predominant directions are idealistic schools, although materialist ones also remain: dialectical and historical materialism, scientific materialism, evolutionary theory of knowledge.

5. Interest in social philosophy, in the problems of the development of modern civilization, the role of science in this process has increased, and interest in the irrational problems of existence has increased somewhat.

In modern philosophy, the philosophical models of thinking that developed in the 40s have retained their influence, and new schools have also emerged.

Let's consider some areas of modern philosophy.

Phenomenology(E. Husserl -1859-1938).

The goal of phenomenology is: to build a science of science, a science of science. E. Husserl believed that the study of the life world and science should begin with the study of consciousness. Consciousness - This is the main subject of philosophy.

Phenomenology strives to highlight the pure, i.e. pre-symbolic consciousness, or "subjective flow". The main characteristic of consciousness is its focus on external objects. A person brings meaning to objects in the external world. That is, the world is filled with meanings of consciousness through which we perceive the objects of existence. It turns out that consciousness in its pure form - the “absolute Self” - seems to construct the world, bringing “meaning” into it.

Positivism. Positivism, which arose in the 20s of the 19th century (O. Comte, G. Spencer), evolved through Machism (E. Mach, R. Avenarius), neopositivism of the 20-30s. (M. Schlick, B. Russell, L. Wittgenstein) to postpositivism (I. Lakatos, T. Kuhn, P. Feyerabend) and critical rationalism (K. Popper, W. Bartley). Positivism is generally characterized by ideological skepticism, the desire to declare all philosophical questions “pseudo-scientific.” The purification of philosophy is facilitated by “verification,” or experimental testing of knowledge. Karl Popper, for example, put forward the thesis that facts cannot confirm any position, but can refute (falsify) them. This principle leads to the denial of objective truth, replacing the concept of truth with “justification.” K. Popper doubted the ability of the human mind, and his criticism “slipped” into irrationalism.

Existentialism. It arose in the 20s of the 20th century. Typically, a distinction is made between Christian existentialism (K. Jaspers, G. Marcel) and atheistic existentialism (M. Heidegger, J. P. Sartre, A. Camus, etc.). The most important issue of this philosophy is the question of the relationship between essence and existence.

Essence - this is empirical reality, the world of facts, natural and social phenomena. They are something secondary, derived from existence.

Existence - this is human self-awareness. “To exist is to be thinkable.” According to G. Marcel, existence will never be an object. It represents only a kind of feeling, i.e. a person first exists, thinks, feels, lives, and then defines himself in the world. Man transforms the world, makes it dependent on himself, gives it significance. It seems to us that the world is rational, that there are certain laws of the world, but in fact the world is absurd, meaningless, like all human life. The central place in existentialism is occupied by the question of the conflict between the individual and society, the alienation of man. A person’s consciousness is free, and he is free in his choice from the demands of society. But often he freely chooses not to be free.

What is the essence of man? It is in a special way of life, existing in fear, in the awareness of the beginning and the end (birth and death). Therefore, human existence is “being for death” (Heidegger). This is a pessimistic direction, although, for example, J.P. Sartre claims that existentialism is humanism.

Hermeneutics. Hermes - in ancient times Greek mythology, inventor of language, writing, messenger of the will of the gods. The will of the gods was often depicted allegorically, in a condensed form, in the sayings of oracles, which had to be deciphered and their hidden meaning found out. Hermeneutics came to mean the art of interpreting a sign or saying received “from above.” The founder of modern hermeneutics was F. Schleiermacher (1768 - 1834), later W. Dilthey (1835 -1911) became the greatest authority in the field of hermeneutics, and in modern conditions - G. Gadamer.

The subject of philosophy should be texts that act as objective reality for the subject. The text turns out to be independent both in relation to the author and in relation to the environment of his era. Therefore, the task of hermeneutics is to clarify possible interpretations of texts, i.e. not in the reproduction of the old meaning, but in the production of a new meaning on the basis of the old text. Hermeneutics is related to both logic and analytical philosophy. Gadamer speaks of language as the most important condition for ordering the connection of events in our understanding.

In a short manual it is impossible to characterize such directions as pragmatism, philosophy of psychoanalysis, philosophical anthropology, bioethics, structuralism. Students become familiar with them on their own using textbooks and teaching aids.

We note that in our turbulent time, turbulent by social events, the importance and influence of religious philosophy is increasing, her schools such as personalism. Christian evolutionism, neo-Protestantism And neo-Thomism.

The most influential religious and philosophical school neo-Thomism. (Gilson - 1884-1978, Maritain - 1882-1973) The main principles of this direction go back to Thomas Aquinas. This is the unity of faith and knowledge, science and religion; recognition of two truths: faith and reason; superiority of theology over philosophy. The initial principle of neo-Thomism is the assertion that the world was created by God. The material world is divided into the physical, corporeal, transitory world and the immortal world, the world of pure and unchanging essences. In addition, there is a special divine world. And the process of cognition also includes 3 stages: sensory, rational and the stage of divine revelation. Neo-Thomism defends the principle of the duality of truth. There are two truths - the scientific truth and the truth of divine revelation. In recent years, there has been a rapprochement between neo-Thomism and the achievements of science (B. Lonergan, “Method in Theology”). Both Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition are supposedly not premises for theologians’ conclusions, but material for further research.

Neo-Thomism has also developed its own social doctrine, which has a huge influence on world social processes and on the development of civilization.

Philosophical thought in Russia is a unique phenomenon in the history of world science. Russian philosophers assimilated the knowledge accumulated by their predecessors throughout history and adapted it to the realities of Russian life. Naturally, the general characteristics of Russian philosophy will have specific features that make it an original and unique phenomenon in the history of the development of philosophical knowledge. Let us list those phenomena and relationships that Russian philosophy studies. The general characteristics of the subject field of this science in Russia include several aspects.

Society

Studies the structure of society, changes in the course of its development, as well as the possibilities of the most optimal design of society. The main problems of the state and the possibilities of building an ideal society are also studied.

Human

A person is studied from the point of view of his inner world and spirituality. Spiritual and moral development is associated, first of all, with Orthodox Christianity.

Moral

A general description of Russian philosophy is impossible without a description of morality as the desire to overcome the eternal confrontation between good and evil.

Man and space

A special place in the development of Russian philosophical thought is occupied by anthropocosmism, which considers man as an active particle of the universe, part of the cosmos as a great house, a single organism.

Main traditions in Russia

A general description of Russian philosophy is impossible without mentioning the two main traditions that influenced the formation of this direction, namely:

Slavic philosophical and mythological tradition;
Greek-Byzantine religious and philosophical tradition.

Periods of formation of Russian philosophy

The following stages of development of Russian philosophy are identified.

Conclusion

Thus, the Russian philosophical tradition is distinguished by its unique history, which served as such a unique development of scientific thought in our country.

When characterizing the features of Russian philosophy, one must also take into account the cultural and historical background against which it was formed. In Russia, in the course of its history, there was a kind of interweaving of two different types of cultures and, accordingly, types of philosophizing: rationalistic Western European and eastern, Byzantine, included in Russian self-consciousness through Orthodoxy. This combination of two different types of thinking runs through the entire history of Russian philosophy.

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Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….3

1. Stages of development of Russian philosophy………………………………………….5

2. The main directions of philosophical thought in Russian philosophy…………………………………………………………………………………7

2.1 Slavophiles and Westerners……………………………………………………7

2.2 Materialism in Russian philosophy of the mid-19th century………………………8

2.3 Russian pochvenism……………………………………………………...9

2.4 Russian conservatism……………………………………………………...9

2.5 Russian cosmism……………………………………………………………..10

2.6 Philosophy of unity of Vladimir Solovyov…………………………...11

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………17

References……………………………………………………………19

Introduction
When characterizing the features of the development of philosophical thought in Russia, it is necessary, first of all, to take into account the conditions of its existence, which, in comparison with Western European ones, were extremely unfavorable. At a time when Kant, Schelling, Hegel and other thinkers expounded their philosophical systems in German universities, in Russia the teaching of philosophy was under the strictest state control, which did not allow any philosophical free-thinking for purely political reasons. The attitude of state power to philosophy is clearly expressed in the famous statement of the trustee of educational institutions, Prince Shirinsky-Shikhmatov, “The benefits of philosophy have not been proven, but harm is possible.”

On the one hand, the formation of Russian philosophy took place in the course of searching for and answering the questions posed by Russian reality itself, so it is difficult to find in the history of Russian philosophy a thinker who would engage in pure theoreticism and would not respond to pressing problems.

On the other hand, these same conditions led to such an abnormal state for philosophy itself, when, in the perception of philosophical teachings, political attitudes acquired a dominant role and these teachings themselves were assessed primarily from the point of view of their “progressiveness” or “reactionary”, “usefulness” or “ uselessness" for solving social problems. Therefore, those teachings that, although not distinguished by philosophical depth, responded to the topic of the day, were widely known.

1. Stages of development of Russian philosophy

Russian philosophy has come a long way in its development, in which the following stages can be distinguished:

1. XI century - first half of the 18th century. - posing philosophical problems and searching for answers to them within the framework of other forms of social consciousness, primarily religious and aesthetic (Illarion, Andrei Rublev, Feofan the Greek, etc.).

2. Second half of the 18th century. - first quarter of the 19th century. - the spread of philosophy in Russia in the form of a philosophical understanding of the science and culture of its time, which was not without a certain imitation of Western European trends in philosophical thought.

3. Second quarter of the 19th century. - beginning of the 20th century - formation and development of original Russian philosophy.

4. after 1922 - the philosophy of Russian diaspora.

So let’s look at each of the stages in more detail.

Philosophical thought in Russia began to emerge in the 11th century. influenced by the process of Christianization. At this time, Metropolitan Hilarion of Kiev created the famous “Sermon on Law and Grace,” in which he develops a theological and historical concept that substantiates the inclusion of the “Russian land” in the global process of the triumph of divine light. The further development of Russian philosophical thought took place in line with the development of moral and practical instructions and the justification of the special purpose of Orthodoxy in Rus' for the development of world civilization. The most characteristic in this sense is the teaching of the abbot of the Eliazar monastery Philotheus about “Moscow as the third Rome”, created during the reign of Vasily III.

The original search for Russian philosophical thought continued throughout the 16th-18th centuries. These searches took place in an atmosphere of confrontation between two tendencies. The first focused attention on the originality of Russian thought and connected this originality with the unique originality of Russian spiritual life. The second trend expressed the desire to integrate Russia into the process of development of European culture. Representatives of this trend believed that since Russia embarked on the path of development later than other European countries, it should learn from the West and follow the same historical path.

The third stage falls on the second half of the 18th century - the first quarter of the 19th century. At this time, the spread of philosophy in Russia was typical in the form of philosophical understanding of the science and culture of its time, which was not without a certain imitation of Western European trends in philosophical thought.

2. Main directions of philosophical thought of Russian philosophy

2.1 Slavophiles and Westerners

In general, the formation of original Russian philosophy began with the formulation and comprehension of the question of the historical fate of Russia. In the intense controversy of the late 30s. In the 19th century, Slavophilism and Westernism took shape as opposing currents of Russian philosophical thought about Russia’s place in world history.

The main problem around which the discussion ensued can be formulated as follows: is the historical path of Russia the same as the path of Western Europe, and the peculiarity of Russia lies only in its backwardness, or does Russia have a special path and its culture belongs to a different type ? In search of an answer to this question, alternative concepts of Russian history have emerged.

Slavophiles, in their interpretation of Russian history, proceeded from Orthodoxy as the beginning of all Russian national life, emphasized the original nature of the development of Russia, while Westerners were based on the ideas of the European Enlightenment with its cult of reason and progress, and considered the same historical paths inevitable for Russia. Western Europe passed.

The leaders were Alexei Stepanovich Khomyakov (1804-1860), Ivan Vasilyevich Kireevsky (1806-1856), Konstantin Sergeevich Aksakov (1817-1860), Yuri Fedorovich Samarin (1819-1876) - they came up with the rationale for the original path of development of Russia.

The study of history among the Slavophiles was aimed at finding stable factors influencing the historical process. Such factors, according to the Slavophiles, could not be either natural climatic conditions or a strong personality, but only the people themselves as “the only and constant actor in history.” The Slavophiles believed that economic, political and other factors are secondary and are themselves determined by a deeper factor - faith, which determines the historical activity of peoples. The people and faith are related in such a way that not only faith creates the people, but also the people create faith. Orthodoxy in the concept of the Slavophiles acted as the spiritual basis of all Russian life: " penetrating into all the mental and moral beliefs of people, it invisibly led the state to the implementation of the highest Christian principles, never interfering with its development." In the history of Russia, the spiritual values of Orthodoxy merged with people's life.

The greatest merit of the Slavophiles is that they began to view the nation as a spiritual phenomenon.

The influence of the Slavophiles on Russian thought was unusually strong. In the new historical conditions in post-reform Russia, pochvenism became a direct continuation of Slavophilism.

As an ideological movement of social thought, Westernism was not united and homogeneous. Among the Westerners, who included Pyotr Yakovlevich Chaadaev (1794-1856), Alexander Ivanovich Herzen (1812-1870), Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (1811-1848), and others were thinkers of the most equal convictions, including liberals, radicals, conservatives.

2.2 Materialism in Russian philosophy of the mid-19th century.

In the 40s of the XIX century. The materialist trend in Russian philosophy was represented primarily by the works of Herzen. Like most Russian revolutionary democrats, Herzen, in his spiritual development, went through a difficult path of quest - from a deep passion for the philosophy of Hegel, to the materialism of Feuerbach.

In the 60s these same ideas received their further justification in the works of D.I. Pisareva. Also at this time, new forces began to enter the arena of public life, the most active of which was the common intelligentsia. Its recognized leader was Nikolai Alexandrovich Dobrolyubov (1836-1861). Their worldview and ideals were clearly revolutionary-democratic in nature. They were in sharp opposition to the government, fought for the liberation of the individual against the power of society, while relying on materialism and science.

2.3 Russian pochvennichestvo

As already mentioned, a direct continuation of Slavophilism in the 60-80s. The 19th century was pochvenism, represented by the works of Apollo Aleksandrovich Grigoriev (1822-1864), Nikolai Nikolaevich Strakhov (1828-1896), Nikolai Yakovlevich Danilevsky (1822-1885), Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821-1881).

Pochvenism, according to Grigoriev’s definition, was characterized by “the restoration in the soul of a new, or better to say, renewed faith in the soil, in the soil, in the “people.” Faith in the people, in development on their own soil was combined with views on history as a spontaneous organic process, fundamentally not amenable to rationalization.

In the middle of the 19th century, ideas about the uniqueness of each society and its culture, their irreducibility to any single model, were literally in the air, as evidenced by the development of these ideas in Western European and Russian social and philosophical thought. In general, for the first time the idea that Western Europe and Russia belonged to different types of cultures was expressed by M.P. Pogodin. He viewed Europe as the heir to the culture of the Western Roman Empire, and Russia as the heir to the culture of the Eastern Roman Empire - Byzantium.

2.4 Russian conservatism

Before proceeding to a specific consideration of Russian conservatism, it is necessary to first identify the content that is included in the concept of “conservatism.” In this case, conservatism will be understood as social and philosophical concepts that substantiate the need to preserve and maintain historically established forms of state and public life, its moral, legal, religious and family foundations.

The ideology of Russian conservatism is most succinctly expressed in the formula of Count S.G. Uvarov's "Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Nationality", was substantiated at the journalistic level by Mikhail Nikiforovich Katkov (1818-1887), at the philosophical level by Konstantin Nikolaevich Leontyev (1831-1891) and gave a detailed theoretical justification for autocratic power as the only possible and highest form of state power in Russia . In their opinion, only autocratic power ensures the integrity and stability of Russia.

2.5 Russian cosmism

One of the most original trends in Russian philosophical thought of the late 19th and early 20th centuries is the so-called cosmic philosophy, or as it is more often called Russian cosmism.

Let us try to formulate the essence of this movement in a few phrases. Russian cosmism is the doctrine of the inextricable unity of man and space, of the cosmic nature of man and his limitless possibilities for space exploration. Thinkers such as N.F. were actively involved in the problems of Russian cosmism. Fedorov, V.S. Solovyov, N.A. Naumov, K.E. Tsiolkovsky, P.A. Florensky, V.I. Vernadsky, L. Chizhevsky. All of them are outstanding scientists, the pride of our fatherland.

The teaching of Russian cosmists had a fruitful influence on the subsequent development of philosophy and natural sciences; this teaching has its supporters even today. Thus, in recent years, “Fedorov Readings” have begun to be held. There are, although not numerous, associations "Prometheus" and "Federation of Common Cause". And if ideas live and have their faithful supporters, then they are not the property of only the history of philosophical thought.

2.6 Philosophy of unity of Vladimir Solovyov

Vladimir Solovyov (1853-1900) created his own religious-idealistic system. The scope and versatility of Solovyov’s interests can be judged by his numerous works.

He sets out the main principles of his philosophy in his first works: the dissertation “The Crisis of Western Philosophy” and his doctoral dissertation “Criticism of Abstract Principles.” Solovyov sets out the ontology and epistemology of unity mainly in “The Philosophical Principles of Integral Knowledge”, as well as in the work “The First Principle of Creative Philosophy”.

Philosophy and science (according to Solovyov, have their value in unity, with religious faith: knowledge in the real world is given by science, about the ideal world - by philosophy, about God - only by faith. Whole knowledge, according to Solovyov, acts as a synthesis of science, philosophy and faith. But Solovyov put faith above reason; he saw only in religious faith: higher, unifying type of cognition.

Solovyov had multifaceted hobbies - Christian philosophy, Buddhism, Neoplatonism. He was interested in the philosophical constructions of Kant, Schelling, Hegel, Schopenhauer, the philosophical ideas of Chaadaev, the Slavophiles, etc. He was aware of scientific discoveries.

Uniting all the diversity of life in his philosophy of unity, he uniquely interpreted Darwin's evolutionary theory. For him, the world in its development goes through two stages: the first (before man) is the evolution of nature, the second (human activity) is history. The final result of the development of the world is the establishment of the Kingdom of God, the reunification of the world with its creator - God, i.e. restoration of unity.

Solovyov's religious and idealistic ideas were adopted by Berdyaev, Bulgakov, Karsavin, Lopatin, Frank and other Russian thinkers. But in Russia, Solovyov’s philosophy found understanding only in a narrow circle of intellectuals; the church and official authorities treated it negatively. The reigning Alexander III recognized Solovyov as a “pure psychopath.”

There is no unambiguous, and apparently there cannot be, attitude towards Solovyov’s philosophical constructs in our time. Noting the originality of Solovyov’s philosophical system, its uniqueness, researchers express different attitudes towards it depending on their social positions.

The Russian philosophical Renaissance, or the Revival of Russian religious-idealistic philosophy of the beginning of this century, was based on two main ideological sources, on the previous development of world philosophy and culture, on the one hand, and on the other, on the long process of development of domestic philosophical thought. Being closely connected with the line of development of national philosophy, Russian religious-idealistic philosophy of the early 20th century seemed to follow the path of Slavophilism. However, she differed from him in her positive assessment of the contemporary quest for Western philosophical thought. Representatives of this trend, their works, despite the inherent characteristics of their time, are of enduring interest, I mean educational. It was Vasily Vasilyevich Rozanov (1856-1919) who was a highly original philosopher. According to Gorky, Rozanov was a man of genius, a remarkable thinker and an excellent writer.

Nikolai Aleksandrovich Berdyaev (1874-1948) was the most prominent personality in Russian philosophy of the 20th century. For the West, where he lived for a significant part of his life, he became the main exponent of the spirit of the Russian religious Renaissance. Berdyaev had an exceptional gift for synthesizing various philosophical ideas. His work is the result of a wide variety of influences; Dostoevsky, Solovyov, Kant, Marx, medieval mystics. Constant attention to other people's ideas was combined with such a gift for synthesis that in his work other people's ideas, being digested in his own cauldron, took on a special "Berdyaev" shade.

Lev Shestov (1866-1938) was born in Kyiv. He spent most of his life abroad in Switzerland and France. Shestov is distinguished by his exceptional literary talent. He writes not only with a simplicity rare for a philosopher, but also with excitement. His main desire is to establish a religious philosophy based on faith. Biblical philosophy, Shestov believed, is much deeper and more penetrating than modern philosophy. He was one of the brightest representatives of Russian existential philosophy, exploring the problems of human existence.

The concept of unity, which was started by V. Solovyov, was further developed in the corpses of his followers, primarily Florensky (1882-1937). Another major successor of Solovyov’s ideas was S.A. Bulgakov (1871-1944). Also a famous follower of Solovyov’s philosophy was S.L. Frank (1877-1950).

Among the thinkers who began their creative activity in the conditions of the “silver” century of Russian culture, a prominent place belongs to Nikolai Onufrievich Lossky (1870-1965).

Lossky's philosophical evolution is determined by a gradual but continuous movement from abstract and epistemological intuitionism to intuitive ontology and religious ideals. The last decades of M. V. Lossky's life is a religious (Orthodox) thinker, the object of whose philosophical interest is spiritual values, permeated with ideas of the transcendent.

The philosophical legacy of Lossky, like Berdyaev, is very large. His main works are: “Basic teachings of psychology from the point of view of voluntarism” (1903), “The world as a limited whole” (1917), “Basic issues of epistemology (collection of articles)” (1919), “Logic” (1923). “Collection of problems from logic” (1924), “Substantiations of intuitionism” (1924), “Free will” (1927), “Conditions of absolute good (foundations of ethics)” (1931), “Dialectical materialism in the USSR" (1934), "Sensitive, intellectual and mystical intuition" (1938), "History of Russian philosophy" (1951), "Dostoevsky and his Christian worldview" (1953), etc.

Lossky saw the main task of philosophy in constructing a theory about the world as a single whole. He calls his theory of knowledge intuitionism. With this word he called the doctrine that a cognized object, even if it is part of the external world, is directly included in the person’s consciousness by the subject’s consciousness and is considered as existing independently of the act of cognition. This kind of contemplation of other entities as they are in themselves is possible because the world is a definite organic whole, and the cognizable object, the individual human “I” is a timeless and extra-spatial being that is closely connected with the whole world. The relationship of the subject to other entities in the world, which makes intuition possible, Lossky calls epistemological coordination.

In accordance with the theory of intuition, Lossky believes, the sensitive qualities of an object are colors, sounds, heat, etc. - are transsubjective, in other words, they relate to real objects of the external world. They are considered as rational and subjective qualities by followers of the causal-hereditary theory of perception, according to which stimulation of the sensory organs by rays of light, air waves and therefore similar factors is the cause that creates the content of perception.

Following Bergson, Lossky believes that memory is the subject’s direct contemplation of the past. So, he notes, illusions and hallucinations can be interpreted as a subjective synthesis in transsubjective data of past experience.

Lossky uses the term “ideal being” in the meaning that Plato gave it. He believed that this existence has neither spatial nor temporal character. It includes in its content general concepts of such relations as, for example, the connection between quality and its bearer, quantitative forms and relations (number, unity). Lossky calls phenomena and forms that exist in space and time real being. Real being, he believed, can arise and have a systematized character only on the basis of ideal being. In order to draw attention to the peculiarities of his understanding of existence, Lossky calls his theory ideal realism. He believed that, in addition to ideal and real being, there is also metalogical being, that is, being that goes beyond the laws of logic. Ideal being is an object of intellectual intuition (contemplation). It is considered directly, since it exists in the subject itself. From here the conclusion is drawn that discursive thinking is not an objection to intuition, but a variety of it. Metalological being is the object of mystical intuition.

The basis of the world, Lossky emphasized, is a principle that is outside the world, on the other side of it. This principle is incomparable to the world. This is not the mind, since it is outside the mind, it is not personal, since it is outside the personality. Even the term “absolute” does not express the essence of this principle, since the Absolute correlates with relative, cosmic existence. In other words, the principle in question is completely free from the world. The world cannot exist without this principle, but this principle exists outside the world. In religious experience, God reveals himself not only as the absolute fullness of being, but also as the highest, absolutely perfect value, as good, or, more precisely, the highest good, namely: beauty, love, integrity, truth.

The values of life are leveled when a person shows selfishness. Some people on the path to perfection strive for the absolute fullness of being, moreover, for the blessings of the whole world, they try to achieve their goal and rise above other beings and even the Lord God, believing that they can put the world in order better than the Creator did. Pursuing an unattainable goal, they suffer defeat at every step, which will cause anger and hatred of God in them. Selfishness and pride alienate us from God and devalue us as a person and person. The creative powers of an egoistic person gradually fade away if she opposes God, if her whole does not harmoniously coincide with God’s will and principles, which are expressed in the moral precepts of the Bible.

Lossky's philosophy was the apogee of Russian philosophy in the diaspora. Although it was inferior to the authority of Berdyaev and Shestov, it creatively deepened and expanded all those key problems that were raised in Western European intuitionism and personalism, thereby confirming the high level of Russian philosophical thought in the world philosophical process.

Russian philosophical thought is an organic part of world philosophy and culture. Russian philosophy addresses the same problems as Western European philosophy, although the approach to them and the methods of understanding them were deeply rational. The famous historian of Russian philosophical thought, Zenkovsky, noted that philosophy found its own path in Russia - “not alienating the West, even learning from it constantly and diligently, but still living with its inspirations, its problems...”. In the 19th century Russia has taken the path of independent philosophical thought. He further notes that Russian philosophy is not theocentric (although it has a strong religious element) and not cosmocentric (although alien to natural philosophical quests), but above all anthropocentric, historical and committed to social issues: “it is more occupied with the topic of man, his fate and ways, about the meaning and goals of history." These same features of Russian philosophical thought were also noted by such researchers of Russian philosophy as Vvedensky, Berdyaev and others.

Conclusion.

Despite the fact that Russian philosophical thought is represented by a variety of directions and schools, when solving philosophical problems, it was dominated by a creatively active character, a pronounced moral attitude, and a constant focus on the historical destinies of Russia, on the place of the Russian people in the family of European nations. Therefore, without mastering the national spiritual heritage, it is impossible to understand the history and soul of the Russian people, to comprehend the place and role of Russia in world civilization.

Bibliography

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2. Spirkin F.G. Philosophy. A manual for universities. - M, 1998.

3. Alekseev P.V. History of philosophy: textbook. M.: TK Welby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2005 240 p.

4. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. Philosophy: Textbook. 3rd ed., revised. and additional M.: TK Welby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2004. 608 p.

5. Golubintsev V.O., Dantsev A.A., Lyubchenko V.S. Philosophy for technical universities. Series “Higher Education” Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix Publishing House, 2004 640 p.

6. Krapivensky S.E. Social philosophy: Textbook. for students humanit.-social. specialist. institutions of higher education. 4th ed., theory. M.: Humanit. ed. VLADOS center, 2003. 416 p.

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	The example of theogony clearly shows the features of mythological thinking, namely: the explanation of all phenomena on the basis of the action of supernatural forces of their intent and will; the absence of a line between the real and the imaginary; assessment of all phenomena from the point of view of their usefulness or harmfulness, friendliness or hostility towards humans...
100.		Principles of Russian punctuation. Basic types of punctuation marks	8.92 KB
	Basic types of punctuation marks Punctuation is a collection of rules for placing punctuation marks, as well as the system of punctuation marks itself. He formulated his understanding of the purpose of punctuation: 1 punctuation marks contribute to clarity in the presentation of thoughts by separating one sentence from another or one part of it from another; 2 express the sensations of the speaker’s face and his attitude towards the listener. To the logical separating function of the first group of punctuation marks, Buslaev adds a stylistic function: the basic rules for their use are determined...
3819.		Main trends in the development of political thought in Medieval Rus'	25.56 KB
	At the same time, the chronicle documents reveal the desire of their authors to substantiate the source of the authority of the princely power and their ideas about the ideal reign. The main theme is the justification of princely power through the will of God, the role of law and truth in regulating human behavior.
2459.		Basic problems of philosophy. Ways and forms of human existence in the world	1.37 MB
	The ways of human existence in the world can be divided into three groups: Activity is a form of human activity. Unlike the activity of nature, human activity has a goal: human activity is always purposeful. A person’s activities are carried out according to one plan or another: either this plan is developed on paper or the plan is in his head.
11441.		AXIOLOGY OF THE HUMAN BODY IN THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE PICTURE OF THE WORLD AND RUSSIAN LINGUOCULTURE	107.98 KB
	The world in which modern man lives is defined as the global nature of society is increasingly determined by the consumption of information, and the culture of such a society is becoming mass. The body as a unique sociocultural phenomenon permeates dominant information resources the discourse of fashion advertising and mass media. As theorists of conceptology note about the new direction of linguistic and cultural research in Yu., the concept concept reflects all the ideas existing in the minds of native speakers about any...