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Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation - a complete academic reference book. Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation

THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Department of Historical and Philological Sciences

Institute of Russian Language named after. V. V. Vinogradova

RULES OF RUSSIAN SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION

Complete Academic Reference

Valgina Nina Sergeevna, Eskova Natalya Aleksandrovna, Ivanova Olga Evgenievna, Kuzmina Svetlana Maksimovna, Lopatin Vladimir Vladimirovich, Chelydova Lyudmila Konstantinovna

Executive editor V.V. Lopatin

Design by E. Enenko

Preface

The proposed reference book was prepared by the Russian Language Institute. V.V. Vinogradov RAS and the Orthographic Commission at the Department of Historical and Philological Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It is the result of many years of work by the Spelling Commission, which includes linguists, university teachers, methodologists, and high school teachers.

The following people took part in the work of the commission, which repeatedly discussed and approved the text of the reference book: Ph.D. Philol. Sciences B. 3. Bookchina, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences, Professor N. S. Valgina, teacher of Russian language and literature S. V. Volkov, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor V. P. Grigoriev, Doctor of Pedagogy. Sciences, Professor A.D. Deykina, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences, Associate Professor E. V. Dzhandzhakova, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences N. A. Eskova, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences A. A. Zaliznyak, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences O. E. Ivanova, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences O. E. Karmakova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor L.L. Kasatkin, Academician of the Russian Academy of Education V.G. Kostomarov, Academician of the Moscow Academy of Pedagogical Education and the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences O.A. Krylova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor L. P. Krysin, Doctor of Philology. Sciences S. M. Kuzmina, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor O. V. Kukushkina, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor V.V. Lopatin (chairman of the commission), teacher of Russian language and literature V.V. Lukhovitsky, head. Laboratory of Russian Language and Literature of the Moscow Institute for Advanced Studies of Education Workers N. A. Nefedova, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences I.K. Sazonova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences A.V. Superanskaya, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences L.K. Cheltsova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor A.D. Shmelev, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor M.V. Shulga. Recently deceased members of the commission took an active part in discussing and editing the text of the rules: Dr. Philol. Sciences, Professors V.F. Ivanova, B.S. Schwarzkopf, E.N. Shiryaev, Ph.D. Sciences N.V. Solovyov.

The main task of this work was to prepare a complete text of Russian spelling rules that corresponds to the modern state of the Russian language. The “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation”, which are still in force, officially approved in 1956, were the first generally binding set of rules that eliminated discrepancies in spelling. Exactly half a century has passed since their publication; numerous manuals and methodological developments have been created on their basis. Naturally, during this time a number of significant omissions and inaccuracies were discovered in the wording of the “Rules”.

The incompleteness of the “Rules” of 1956 is largely explained by changes that have occurred in the language itself: many new words and types of words have appeared, the spelling of which is not regulated by the “Rules”. For example, in modern language, units that stand on the border between a word and a part of a word have become more active; among them there were such as mini, maxi, video, audio, media, retro etc. In the “Rules” of 1956 it is impossible to find the answer to the question of whether such units should be written together with the next part of the word or through a hyphen. Many recommendations on the use of capital letters are outdated. Punctuation rules need clarification and additions, reflecting the stylistic diversity and dynamism of modern speech, especially in the mass press.

Thus, the prepared text of the rules of Russian spelling not only reflects the norms set out in the “Rules” of 1956, but also in many cases complements and clarifies them taking into account modern writing practice.

While regulating spelling, this reference book, naturally, cannot cover and exhaust all specific complex cases of spelling words. In these cases, it is necessary to refer to spelling dictionaries. The most complete standard dictionary is currently the academic “Russian Spelling Dictionary” (2nd edition, M., 2005), containing 180 thousand words.

This reference book on Russian spelling is intended for teachers of the Russian language, editorial and publishing workers, and anyone writing in Russian.

To facilitate the use of the reference book, the text of the rules is supplemented with word indexes and a subject index.

The compilers express gratitude to all scientific and educational institutions that took part in the discussion of the concept and text of the Russian spelling rules that compiled this reference book.

SPELLING

INTRODUCTION

General information about Russian writing

Russian writing is sound-letter: its main units - letters - correspond to the phonetic (sound) units of the language. The rules that determine the generally accepted notation of words are called spelling rules. They are divided into four main groups: literal transmission of the sound composition of words; continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling; use of uppercase and lowercase letters; transfer rules. In turn, the literal transmission of the sound composition of words is determined by two types of rules: general rules for the use of letters (they are also called graphics rules) and rules for writing significant parts of a word.

Punctuation marks, or punctuation marks (period, comma, semicolon, colon, dash, ellipsis, question and exclamation marks, parentheses, and partly quotation marks), do not participate in the design of a word, but divide the written text and highlight syntactic units. The rules for using punctuation marks are called punctuation rules.

Russian alphabet(a set of letters arranged in a conditional but strictly defined order) consists of 33 letters, each of which exists in two versions: uppercase (capital) and lowercase (small).

Letter - Letter name

Her, Yoyo - e, e

Yi - and short

Ъъ - hard sign

ь - soft sign

The basic principle of using letters

The general rules for the use of letters determine the transmission in writing of paired hard and soft consonants, as well as the sound [ j] (“yot”).

There are no simple one-to-one relationships between the sounds and letters of the alphabet. To convey vowels, ten letters are used, forming five letter pairs: a - i, u - y, o - e, e - e, s - i . 21 letters are used to convey consonants: b, c, d, e, g, h, j, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x, c, h, w, sch, th .

In Russian writing there are no special letters to designate paired hard and soft consonants. Each pair of consonants, differing only in hardness and softness, is denoted by the same letter: b And b’(’ - sign of softness) - letter b , P And P'- letter P , d And d'- letter d etc. The hardness-softness of paired consonants is indicated by the letter following them: the hardness of the consonant is indicated by the letters a, y, o, uh, s , for softness - letters I, yu, yo, e, and , eg: glad - row, bow - hatch, push - chick, sir - gray, ardor - drank. At the end of a word or before a hard consonant, the softness of the paired consonant is indicated by the letter b (soft sign), cf.: horse - horse, blood - blood, treasure - luggage; bank - bathhouse, slide - bitter, sense - only.

Phonemic principle of Russian spelling

From the history of Russian spelling

Punctuation norms

Punctuation of ancient monuments of the 11th - 14th centuries

Russian punctuation of the XV-XVII centuries

Bibliography

Introduction

Spelling standards- these are the rules for naming words in writing. They include rules for designating sounds with letters, rules for continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling of words, rules for the use of capital letters and graphic abbreviations. Punctuation standards determine the use of punctuation marks.

The Russian language unites the nation and at the same time is an integral and most important part of our national culture, reflecting the history of the people and their spiritual quest. Modern Russianists, and in particular, specialists in the culture of speech, rightly say that the Russian language, while reflecting our national virtues, no less clearly shows all our troubles. The problem of the correctness of Russian speech and compliance with the norms of the literary language are widely discussed in newspapers and magazines, and in radio broadcasts. Deviations from norms in the public speech of politicians, radio and television announcers, and a decline in the overall literacy level of the population, and especially young people, are condemned. At the same time, there is not a single area of human knowledge or human activity for which poor, confused, illiterate professional or everyday speech of a performer would be a blessing. A graduate of any university - technical or humanitarian - must be literate and have a good command of speech culture.

Speech culture is, firstly, mastery of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written form. Allows you to use language tools with maximum effect in any communication situation while maintaining communication ethics. Secondly, this is an area of linguistics that is designed to solve problems of speech norms and develop recommendations for the skillful use of language. Standardization of speech is compliance in speech with the current norms of stress, pronunciation, word usage, stylistics, morphology, word formation, syntax. Issues of speech culture were dealt with by M.V. Lomonosov, Ostokov, Otebnya, Inokur, A.M. Peshkovsky, Ebra, Shakov, V.V. Vinogradov, Vanesov, S.I. Ozhegov.

Based on the foregoing, the purpose of this essay is to study the problem of norms of the Russian language, and in particular, spelling and spelling. To study this issue, first of all, it is necessary to define the concept of a language norm, identify its main features, and indicate the sources of norms of the modern Russian language. Secondly, it is necessary to determine what is the subject of the study of spelling and spelling, what are the historical roots of this issue. To discuss the topic in the abstract, the works of S.I. were used. Ozhegova, I.B. Golub, D.E. Rosenthal, N.S. Valgina, R.I. Avanesova and others, as well as materials from periodicals.

Spelling standards

Spelling (from the Greek orthos direct, correct and grapho I write) is an applied section of linguistics that determines ways of conveying words in writing using alphabetic and non-literal (hyphens, spaces, dashes) graphic symbols, as well as establishing. Spelling consists of several sections:

· writing significant parts of a word (morphemes) - roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings, that is, designating with letters the sound composition of words where this is not determined by graphics;

· continuous, separate and hyphenated writing;

· use of uppercase and lowercase letters;

· transfer rules;

· rules for graphic abbreviations of words.

Phonemic principle of Russian spelling

Spelling is based on certain principles: phonemic, phonetic, traditional and differentiated. The phonemic principle is that the letter does not reflect phonetically positional changes - reduction of vowels, deafening, voicing, softening of consonants. In this case, vowels are written as if under stress, and consonants as in a strong position, for example, a position before a vowel. With the phonetic principle of spelling, a letter is indicated not by a phoneme, but by a sound. For example, the writing of prefixes ending in [z] is subject to the phonetic principle in the Russian language. They are written either with the letter s or with the letter z, depending on the quality of the next consonant: break - split. The essence of the differentiation principle is to distinguish orthographically that which does not differ phonetically. In this case, the letters are associated directly with the meaning: arson (v.) – arson (n.). The traditional principle governs the spelling of untested vowels and consonants (dog, pharmacy).

In the Russian spelling system, the main, leading principle is phonemic. It is on this that the basic spelling rules are based, while other principles are partially used.

Continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling regulated by the traditional principle, taking into account the morphological independence of units. Individual words are written mostly separately, except for negative and indefinite pronouns with prepositions (not with anyone) and some adverbs (in an embrace), parts of words are written together or with a hyphen (cf.: in my opinion and in my opinion).

Use of uppercase and lowercase letters is governed by a lexical-syntactic rule: proper names and titles (MSU, Moscow State University), as well as the first word at the beginning of each sentence, are written with a capital letter. The rest of the words are written with a lowercase letter.

Word hyphenation rules from one line to another: when transferring, first of all, the syllabic division of the word is taken into account, and then its morphemic structure: war, raz-bit, and not *vo-yn, *ra-zvit. One letter of the word is not carried over or left on the line. Identical consonants at the root of words are separated during transfer: kas-sa.

From the history of Russian spelling

In connection with this issue, let us consider a section of the book by S.I. Ozhegov “On the streamlining of Russian spelling”, based on examples. "Russian Grammar", published by the Russian Academy in 1802, clarified and detailed Lomonosov's spelling rules and thereby summed up the entire work of the 18th century. by ordering spelling. But in the future, fluctuations increase, new ones are added to the old ones. Academician's work Y.K. Grota "Controversial Issues of Russian Spelling from Peter the Great to the Present", published in 1873, very fully revealed the causes and cases of discrepancies in spelling. His manual “Russian Spelling” significantly contributed to the streamlining of spelling and served spelling practice for half a century. But the leadership of Y.K. Grotto, under the conditions of that time, could not solve many pressing issues of spelling practice. Only the reform of 1917-1918, carried out by the Soviet government, eliminated all relics, outdated rules, and Russian spelling became much slimmer and better. But there were still many unresolved issues, many fluctuations in spellings continued to exist, and spelling aids published in the early years of the revolution often contradicted each other, which complicated spelling practice.

What explains the presence and occurrence of oscillations? Is it possible to avoid them in the future? As the history of spelling shows, a greater or lesser number of different spellings always remained after each successive settlement. The thing is that spelling does not keep up with the development of language. The source of the emergence of mass fluctuations is the development of the vocabulary of the language, especially in the 19th and 20th centuries.

The development of vocabulary through the internal means of the literary language introduced especially many contradictions into literary practice. For example, one of the most disastrous phenomena in modern spelling is the combined or separate writing of adverbs formed from combinations of a preposition with a noun. This type of adverb formation lives in modern language. Reflecting the needs of communication, adverbs arise constantly. Before the revolution, a combination in a draw was written separately, but after the revolution, with the development of sports and the art of chess, it was terminologicalized, and now everyone understands its continuous spelling in a draw. During the Great Patriotic War, a military expression appeared on the pages of our press on the move (attack, storm, etc.). Not knowing how to react to it, the same newspapers wrote it both separately (on the spot) and together (on the spot). However, recently they began to write separately - on the move, taking into account the presence of parallel formations with the noun move (for example, changing lanes on the move, etc.).

Or, for example, the category of complex adjectives in modern language is a living and productive category. They arise constantly, and with the same constancy fluctuations in continuous writing or through a dash are detected. The existing rules for writing military training, military field, bakery, on the one hand, and military service, bakery, on the other, do not fit into the existing rules.

Fluctuations in the spellings of adverbs, compound adjectives and other entire categories of words are especially noticeable in our spelling practice. What is required here is the creation of such clear, objectively accessible rules that could, to a certain extent, indicate the path for writing newly formed words.

The history of spelling shows that spelling never develops by breaking the existing system. Historically appropriate and socially justified is the internal improvement of spelling, taking into account the laws of language development with the elimination of survival elements, as was the case, for example, in 1917.

Survival elements that contradict the phonetic and morphological system of the modern Russian language have been eliminated. The main task of improving the culture of written speech is not reform, but the streamlining of spelling.

Further history of Russian writing in the 20th century. is a history of attempts to further improve it. In 1956, the final version was adopted - the Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation, which are in force to this day.

Today, the need to make changes to spelling and punctuation norms, according to linguists, is due to the fact that the current “Code of Rules,” approved in 1956, is quite outdated. During this time, the language acquired many neologisms, for which there are no rules for writing; The spelling of a number of words has changed significantly in practice. Confusion has begun in the publication of spelling dictionaries and textbooks on the Russian language: dictionaries that are obviously outdated and, at the same time, modern ones are being republished under the guise of “new.” Today there are two spelling dictionaries (N.V. Solovyova and V.V. Lopatina), on each of which it is written: “Russian Academy of Sciences”. Both dictionaries are in conflict with the rules of 1956 that are in force and have not yet been repealed. Meanwhile, “...in most of the largest European countries there is a standard representation of the national language in the form of a set of dictionaries (DUDEN, Standartwerk zur deutchen Sprache - in Germany, Standard Reference Books - in the UK, etc.). This series of reference books is designed for "

Chairman of the Spelling Commission V.V. Lopatin emphasized that the discussed spelling reform cannot be called a reform of the Russian language, since it does not provide for any fundamental changes in the rules: we are talking only about those 23 norms that life itself has already changed. As an example, the scientist cited the spelling of complex words. Thus, according to the current rules, the word “state-monopoly” should be written together. It is also proposed to unify the various norms that were unreasonably introduced (for example, writing the prefix half- in the words half-eleven, half-eleven). Thus, work on improving spelling continues in our time.

Punctuation norms

The theory of punctuation in the works of scientists of historical and modern linguistics. The history of Russian punctuation has not been studied fully and deeply. A statement made by Shapiro back in 1955 still remains relevant: “Russian punctuation has not yet been subjected to scientific research. As a system of rules, it was covered mainly in works on grammar (M.V. Lomonosova, A.A. Barsova, A.Kh. Vostokova, F.I. Buslaeva, etc.). Special works devoted to punctuation are rare... We also do not have a history of Russian punctuation” (Shapiro, 1955, 3). We can name only a few studies that examine the issue of the emergence and development of Russian punctuation. A brief outline of the history of punctuation until the beginning of the 18th century can be found in the article by I.I. Sreznevsky “On Russian spelling”. V. Klassovsky in his work “Punctuation marks in the five most important languages.” An attempt to determine the development of punctuation at its origins is made by S.A. Bulich in the article “Interpuncture”. Statements regarding the origin and development of punctuation can be found in the work of A. Gusev “Punctuation marks (punctuation) in connection with a brief study of the sentence and other signs in the Russian written language.” L.V. Shcherba, in his article “Punctuation,” expressed some thoughts about the use of punctuation marks in Old Russian writing. But the greatest value among works on the history of punctuation are the scientific works of S.I. Abakumov. His research “Punctuation in the monuments of Russian writing of the XI-XVII centuries.” is an essay on the history of Russian punctuation. The works of K.I. are devoted to the study of punctuation of individual monuments. Belova: “From the history of Russian punctuation of the 16th century,” which examines the punctuation of “Domostroy,” and “From the history of Russian punctuation of the 17th century,” which analyzes the use of punctuation in the “Cathedral Code of 1649.” However, the listed works do not provide a sufficient idea of the development of Russian punctuation and do not fully reflect the peculiarities of the use of punctuation marks. It is traditionally believed that the basis of punctuation is syntax. S.K. Bulich wrote: “Interpuncture makes clear the syntactic structure of speech, highlighting individual sentences and parts of sentences” (Bulich 1894, 268]. N.I. Grech adhered to the grammatical principle when determining the main function of signs: “Punctuation marks are used in writing to indicate a grammatical connection or differences between sentences and their parts and to distinguish sentences by their expression" (Grech, 1827, 512). S.I. Abakumov defended the semantic purpose of punctuation: "The main purpose of punctuation is to indicate the division of speech into parts that are important for expression of thought when writing" (Abakumov 1950, 5). A.A. Vostokov, I.I. Davydov, A.M. Peshkovsky believed that the main purpose of punctuation is to convey the intonation side of speech. Modern linguistic science proceeds from the structural-semantic principle. She considers it necessary to take into account semantic and grammatical features when using punctuation marks. The semantic purpose of punctuation marks, believed S.I. Abakumov, in many cases can be understood with sufficient clarity only by understanding the grammatical structure of the language. The question of the purpose of punctuation and its principles was also reflected in the works of Russian grammarians of the 16th-18th centuries. During this period, the foundations of Russian punctuation began to take shape. However, almost until the invention of printing, we do not find definite punctuation in the samples of ancient writing, although some of its rudiments were observed in the time of Aristotle in Greek written speech. So, for example, a dot placed at the top of a letter corresponded to the current dot, opposite the middle of the letter corresponded to a colon, and at the bottom of the letter corresponded to a comma. However, the use of a dot as a mental separating sign was not considered obligatory. Unlike spelling, punctuation is more international, so it should be considered as the result of a long interaction between the punctuation features of the Russian language and the features of other languages of the world. Aristophanes of Byzantium was the first to use punctuation marks. We find clear hints about punctuation marks in Aristotle: the dot at the bottom of the letter (A.) corresponded to the current comma, opposite the letter (A) to the colon, and against the top (A) to the dot. And at the beginning of the 1st century. BC e. the system of punctuation marks was already understood theoretically and outlined by the Greek grammarian Dionysius of Thracia in the book “Grammarical Art”. He distinguished three punctuation marks: 1) a dot - a sign of a completed thought, 2) a middle dot - a sign of rest, 3) a small dot - a sign of a thought not yet completed, but in need of continuation. Thus, the point was revived before all the signs. In the middle of the 1st century BC. Punctuation is influenced by the dominant role of Roman science, but no fundamentally new punctuation was created. Still, there were some differences in Greek and Latin punctuation, and, as a consequence, in the history of punctuation it is common to distinguish between the Greek and Latin punctuation traditions. Later, these differences will be reflected in Western European punctuation systems. By the 10th century, that is, by the time of the invention of the Slavic Cyrillic letter, the following signs were already in use in Greek and Latin manuscripts: 1) cross (+), 2) various combinations of dots (. . . . ~ : ~), 3) period (.), 4) semicolon (; or.,), 5) two semicolons (,), 6) comma (,), 7) group of commas (,). Russian manuscripts did not know the division of phrases into words. Points were placed in the intervals between undivided sections of text. In the middle of the speech, only one punctuation mark was used - a period, and then - accidentally, inappropriately; as a final sign they used four dots on a cross (.) or another similar combination of signs, and then a line.

Punctuation of ancient monuments of the 11th - 14th centuries

In the development of punctuation of the Church Slavonic language, we notice three periods: the first covers manuscripts from the 11th century until the introduction of printing in Russia; the second period - old printed books before the text of the Holy Scripture was corrected during the patriarchate of Nikon; the third period - books of the corrected and currently used text. In the first period, the following punctuation marks were used: 1) period (.), 2) straight cross (+), 3) quarter (:), 4) simple colon (:), 5) colon with an intermediate curve (:). In most of the manuscripts of this period, words were written almost without intervals, sometimes scribes put a dot or a straight cross between words, but they were not guided by any punctuation rules, and the use of the above signs was vague and confusing. The graphic side of the Ostromir Gospel occupies a special place in the history of Russian punctuation. “Writing monuments, the linguistic study of which already has a fairly long tradition, remain one of the most important sources for studying the history of the Russian language in all its diversity” (Kolosov, 1991, 3). This is one of the few ancient monuments where the line, in addition to the dot, is divided by other signs - a cross and a vertical wavy line - a serpent. The punctuation marks of the Ostromir Gospel, with a single exception, indicate either the boundaries of sentences or the boundaries of actual components within sentences, and crosses are clearly contrasted in this regard with dots and serpents. A characteristic feature of the overwhelming mass of Russian monuments of the 11th - 14th centuries. is the absence of opposition between intra-phrase and inter-phrase punctuation. Even if some kind of sign is used inside a paragraph in addition to the usual period, its use is no different from the use of a period.

Russian punctuation of the XV-XVII centuries

In early printed books, when words were already separated from each other, the graphic arsenal of Russian punctuation was significantly enriched: in addition to the period, commas, semicolons, and colons began to be used to divide lines. There are different types of dots: term - a dot in the middle of the line - and the actual dot, which was placed at the bottom, and the dots could be of different sizes and colors. However, having mastered the external differences in signs, scribes sometimes did not know what to do with this difference, therefore, not only in the XIV-XV, but also in the XVI-XVII centuries. There are texts with unclear contrasts of signs not only in design, but also in purpose. The traditions of Cyrillic writing in the use of various punctuation marks were dominant in Rus' until the 16th century. In the magnificent Four Gospels of 1537. It is customary to sharply separate expressions by placing thick periods or commas between them, and each expression was written completely together. Starting from the 16th century, handwritten publications adopted the principle of separate writing of words, and later the use of punctuation marks between words, sentences and other syntactic constructions. This custom of writing became a tradition, which was supported by a new way of creating a manuscript - printing. The first works on grammar appear in which some attention is paid to punctuation. These articles were published by Yagich in his work “Ancient Discourse on the Church Slavonic Language.” (Studies in the Russian language, vol. 1. collection, 1885-1895). A common feature of all articles was their anonymity, and most often the authors could not be identified. In some articles, punctuation marks were only named, in others their use was defined. As noted by S.I. Abakumov, statements about punctuation, set out in the works of Russian scribes of the 16th-17th centuries, were undoubtedly based on the Greek punctuation tradition, but at the same time were not a copy of some Greek original: they were created on Russian soil, on the basis of the existing punctuation practice. Particularly noteworthy is the work of Maxim the Greek “On the grammar of the Monk Maxim the Greek, the work of the Holy Mountain was declared for subtlety.” It devotes relatively little space to punctuation issues. M. Greek considered the comma to be the main sign of Russian writing and called it hypodiastole. In his opinion, a comma indicates the incompleteness of the action and allows the speaker to pause while reading. The next punctuation mark is a period that marked the end of the statement. The third punctuation mark is hypodiastole with a dot, which the Greek recommends to indicate a question. Thus, M. Grek emphasizes only the intonational meaning in the use of punctuation marks. At the same time, he tries to specify their use, distinguishing between the functions of a comma and a semicolon. Statements about punctuation in the works of Russian scribes were based on Greek punctuation, but the system of punctuation means was drawn up on Russian soil, the traditions of which were formed by practice. In 1563, in The first Russian printing house arose in Moscow, and in 1564 the first printed book appeared in Russia - "The Apostle", in which punctuation marks were already used - a period and a comma. A period separated an entire independent sentence, and a comma served to separate its parts. The development of typography indicated the need for stability of writing and required a significant improvement in the system of Russian punctuation. The first Grammar printed in the Slavic language was published in Lvov in 1591 under the title ADELPHOTN?. The first proper Slavic Grammar was composed by the Orthodox Archpriest Lavrentiy Zizaniy and published in 1596 in Vilna. it indicates the rules for the use of various punctuation marks - subtle, as Zizanius called them. In addition to the dot and comma, the term (small dot) and double lines were adopted with almost the same meaning as the semicolon in modern Russian. At the end of a sentence, a question mark began to be used - a subframe. Zizanius himself in his book used only some of the signs he proposed. Instead of deadlines (small dots), a dot was constantly put. The double line was used only once. It seems that the author did not clearly understand the function of this sign, much less could distinguish between the use of terms and doubles. A more complete correspondence between theoretical principles and their practical application is observed in the placement of the subtable and the point. Podstoliya was consistently used by L. Zizaniy at the end of an interrogative sentence. According to S.K. Bulich, the entire chapter “On Points” was written by L. Zizaniy under the influence of those grammatical articles that appeared in Rus' in the 16th century and were compiled by unknown authors. Indeed, in the grammar of L. Zizania all those punctuation marks that are found in pre-existing grammars are named. However, his merit is that he tried to give a more detailed explanation of all existing punctuation marks. According to K.I. Belov, in defining punctuation marks L. Zizaniy proceeds from their syntactic purpose. Using the definition of a comma as an example, K. I. Belov writes: “Here, a certain syntactic meaning of the comma is emphasized as a sign that defines part of a statement expressing a complete meaning. This principle, to one degree or another, will be traced in the future, when characterizing other punctuation marks” (Belov, 1959, 4). T.I. does not agree with this point of view. Gaevskaya, who states: “In defining the comma, as well as other signs, L. Zizaniy proceeds primarily from the semantic purpose of punctuation. The syntactic functions of punctuation marks could not be justified theoretically, if only because syntax as a section of grammar had not yet been developed at that time. It is not represented in any way in the grammar of L. Zizania. That is why the question of the basics of punctuation, if we approach it from the point of view of the modern Russian language, was resolved by L. Zizaniy only one-sidedly” (Gaevskaya, 1973, 12). In general, the work of L. Zizania is an attempt to systematize the information about punctuation marks that had accumulated by the end of the 16th century, an attempt to determine the place of each sign in the general punctuation system. And in 1619, another, even more important work, “Grammar” by Meletius Smotritsky, was printed at the Vilna Fraternal Printing House. which began to be used as a teaching aid. It represented a deeper experience of the grammatical development of the Russian language, in contrast to the grammar of L. Zizania. Of course, the external diagrams containing the material are copied from the Greek grammar of Lascaris, but what is important is that the section devoted to punctuation issues is presented much wider than in Zizanius. For the first time, a definition of the concept of punctuation marks appears: “There are speeches / by the outline of different banners in the line of division” (M. Smotritsky, 1619, 5). Thus, Smotritsky regarded punctuation marks as a means of grammatical division of speech and identified ten punctuation marks: 1) bar / 2) comma, 3) colon: 4) period. 5) disjointed 6) unitary " 7) interrogative; 8) surprising! 9) place-holder 10) suspended () Of the ten names given, disjointed and unitary are not punctuation marks in the grammatical sense and are given in order to ensure clarity when reading individual words. Some signs in the grammar of M. Smotritsky they are called differently than in L. Zizania: instead of a double line - a colon, instead of a subline - a question, instead of a connective - a unitary. The feature is explained by the author as a slight increase in voice, not accompanied by a stop when reading. Consequently, this sign should be considered in as a sign that has no syntactic meaning, but has only a rhythmic and melodic character. Therefore, a line that is not used in the meaning of a comma turns out to be devoid of any meaning. But it should be noted that the line was an innovation of the grammarian; before him, this sign was unknown to our punctuation. It is controversial whether the line can be considered a prototype of the dash. If we talk about the graphic side, then, of course, the relationship is obvious. But they are different in their functions, since the punctuation of grammar was based on a fundamentally different principle. Smotritsky's comma is a clearly expressed punctuation mark. From the examples given in the grammar, it is possible to identify the actual syntactic purpose of only one punctuation mark - the comma. As for the colon, Smotritsky notes that this sign is not associated with the idea of a completely complete meaning of the statement, and with a colon a certain stop is clearly felt. So, this sign is to some extent close in meaning to the modern semicolon and partly to the modern colon.

THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Department of Historical and Philological Sciences

Institute of Russian Language named after. V. V. Vinogradova

RULES OF RUSSIAN SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION

Complete Academic Reference

Valgina Nina Sergeevna, Eskova Natalya Aleksandrovna, Ivanova Olga Evgenievna, Kuzmina Svetlana Maksimovna, Lopatin Vladimir Vladimirovich, Cheltsova Lyudmila Konstantinovna

Executive editor V.V. Lopatin

Design by E. Enenko

Preface

The following people took part in the work of the commission, which repeatedly discussed and approved the text of the reference book: Ph.D. Philol. Sciences B. 3. Bookchina, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences, Professor N. S. Valgina, teacher of Russian language and literature S. V. Volkov, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor V.P. Grigoriev, Doctor of Pedagogy. Sciences, Professor A.D. Deykina, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences, Associate Professor E. V. Dzhandzhakova, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences N. A. Eskova, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences A. A. Zaliznyak, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences O. E. Ivanova, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences O. E. Karmakova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor L.L. Kasatkin, Academician of the Russian Academy of Education V.G. Kostomarov, Academician of the Moscow Academy of Pedagogical Education and the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences O.A. Krylova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor L.P. Krysin, Doctor of Philology. Sciences S. M. Kuzmina, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor O. V. Kukushkina, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor V.V. Lopatin (chairman of the commission), teacher of Russian language and literature V.V. Lukhovitsky, head. Laboratory of Russian Language and Literature of the Moscow Institute for Advanced Studies of Education Workers N. A. Nefedova, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences I.K. Sazonova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences A.V. Superanskaya, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences L.K. Cheltsova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor A.D. Shmelev, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor M.V. Shulga. Recently deceased members of the commission took an active part in discussing and editing the text of the rules: Dr. Philol. Sciences, Professors V.F. Ivanova, B.S. Schwarzkopf, E.N. Shiryaev, Ph.D. Sciences N.V. Solovyov.

This reference book on Russian spelling is intended for teachers of the Russian language, editorial and publishing workers, and anyone writing in Russian.

To facilitate the use of the reference book, the text of the rules is supplemented with word indexes and a subject index.

SPELLING

INTRODUCTION

General information about Russian writing

Russian alphabet(a set of letters arranged in a conditional but strictly defined order) consists of 33 letters, each of which exists in two versions: uppercase (capital) and lowercase (small).

Letter - Letter name

Her, Yoyo - e, e

Yi - and short

Ъъ - hard sign

ь - soft sign

The basic principle of using letters

The general rules for the use of letters determine the transmission in writing of paired hard and soft consonants, as well as the sound [ j] (“yot”).

Consonant sounds unpaired in hardness and softness w, w, h, sch(hissing) and ts do not need to indicate hardness or softness using the next letter. To indicate hardness f, w no need to write a letter s , and to denote softness h, sch- letters I, yu . Therefore, after all the hissing letters, letters are written a, y, and , eg: heat, ball, hour, mercy; beetle, noise, miracle, pike; fat, reeds, rank, shield.

To convey the consonant [ j] there is a special letter - th , but it is usually used after vowels - at the end of a word and before consonants, for example: May, Mike, Roy, Shrew. Before vowels - at the beginning of a word and after vowels - [ j] is not indicated by a separate letter, but together with the next vowel is spelled out with the letters I, yu, yo, e , eg: apple, fear, south, snake, tree, sings, spruce, arrived. After consonants in this case before letters I, yu, yo, e are written ъ or b (separators): hug, anniversary, arrived, rise; friends, blizzard, on the bench, gun; after the separation b combination " j+ vowel" can also be expressed as a letter And: nightingales.

Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation complete academic reference book - page No. 1/16

RUSSIAN ACADEMY SCIENCES

Department of Historical and Philological Sciences Institute of Russian Language named after. V.V. Vinogradova

RULES OF RUSSIAN SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION

COMPLETE ACADEMIC GUIDE

N. S. Valgina, N. A. Eskova, O. E. Ivanova, S. M. Kuzmina, V. V. Lopatin, L. K. Cheltsova
Executive editor V.V. Lopatin

Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation. Complete academic reference book / Ed. V.V. Lopatina. - M: AST, 2009. - 432 p.

ISBN 978-5-462-00930-3

The reference book is a new edition of the current “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation”, it is focused on the completeness of the rules, the modernity of the language material, and takes into account the existing practice of writing.

The complete academic reference book is intended for the widest range of readers.

Introduction I

General information about Russian writing 11

The basic principle of using letters 12

The basic principle of conveying significant parts of words in writing 14

Peculiarities of writing some categories of words 16

Rules of use letters 17

General rules 17

Vowels not after sibilants ts 17

Letters A - I, u - Yu 17

Letters O - e 18

Use of letters e in texts for various purposes 20

Letters e - e 21

Letters And - s 24

Vowels after sibilants and ts 26

Letters A,at 26

Letters and, s 26

Letters about her after sizzling 27

Letters about her in place of stressed vowels 27

Letters oh, oh in place of unstressed vowels 33

Letters oie after ts 34

Letter uh after the hissing and ts 34

Letter th 35

Letters ъ and 6 36

Separating ъ And b 36

The letter b as a sign of softness of the consonant 37

Letter b in some grammatical forms 39

Not after sizzling 39

After the sizzling 40

Rules for writing significant parts of words (morphemes) - 40

Spelling unstressed vowels 40

Unstressed vowels in roots 41

Peculiarities of writing individual roots 42

Unstressed vowels in prefixes 51

Unstressed vowels in suffixes 54

Peculiarities of writing individual suffixes 59

Unstressed fluent vowels in roots and suffixes of nouns and adjectives 69

Unstressed connecting vowels 72

Unstressed vowels in case endings 74

Unstressed vowels in verb forms 79

Vowels in verb endings 79

Vowels in the infinitive (indefinite form) before - 82

Unimpacted particles neither and neither 83

Spelling consonants 88

Voiceless and voiced consonants 88

Unpronounceable consonants 92

Groups of consonants at the junction of significant parts of a word - 93

Letters niches before n And T 97

Letter G at the end -th (-his) 99

Double consonants 99

Double consonants at the junction of significant parts of the word 99

Double n and one n in suffixes of adjectives and nouns 101

Double n and one n in suffixes of passive past participles and correlative adjectives... 102

Complete forms 102

Short forms 105

Double n and one n in words formed from adjectives and participles 107

Double consonants in Russian roots 108

Double consonants in borrowed (foreign) roots and suffixes 109

Rules for the use of non-letter characters 111

Hyphen Ш

Slash 113

Apostrophe 114

Accent mark 115

Rules for continuous, hyphenated and separate writing 116

General rules 117

Nouns 121

Common nouns 121

Proper names and compound names 129

Names, pseudonyms, nicknames, nicknames 129

Geographical names 131

Adjectives 134

Numerals 139

Pronominal words 140

Adverbs 141

Functional words and interjections 148

Combinations with particles 150

Writings with negation Not 151

Continuous writing Not 152

Separate writing Not 153

Integrated/separate writing Not 155

Corrective rules (coordination rules) 161

Rules for using uppercase and lowercase letters 164

General information 164

Proper names of people, animals, mythological creatures and words derived from them 167

Geographical and administrative-territorial names and words derived from them 171

Astronomical names 176

Names of historical eras and events, calendar periods and holidays, public

events 176

Names associated with religion 178

Names of authorities, institutions, organizations, societies, parties 182

Names of documents, monuments, objects and works of art 185

Names of positions, ranks, titles 187

Names of orders, medals, awards, insignia 188

Names of trademarks, product brands and varieties 188

Capital letters in special stylistic use 190

Rules for writing abbreviations and graphic abbreviations... 191

Abbreviations and words derived from them 191

Graphic abbreviations 194

Transfer rules 195
PUNCTUATION

About the purpose and principles of punctuation 198

Punctuation marks at the end and at the beginning of sentences. Final

marks in the middle of a sentence 201

Punctuation at the end of sentence 201

Punctuation at the beginning of sentence 203

Sentence end marks within sentences 203

Division of a sentence using point 205

Dash between clauses 206

Dash between subject and predicate 206

Dash in incomplete sentence 209

Gyre in connection function 211

Dash in selection function 212

Signs punctuation for nominative topics 213

Signs punctuation for homogeneous parts of a sentence 214

Punctuation marks for homogeneous members of a sentence with and without conjunctions 214

Punctuation marks for homogeneous members of a sentence with generalizing words 220

Punctuation marks for homogeneous definitions 223

Punctuation marks in homogeneous applications 227

Punctuation marks for repeated parts of sentence 228

Signs punctuation for isolated parts of a sentence 229

Punctuation marks for separate agreed definitions 229

Punctuation marks for isolated inconsistent definitions 235

Punctuation marks for separate applications 239

Punctuation marks in isolated circumstances... 243 Punctuation marks in restrictive-exclusive phrases 249

Punctuation marks for clarifying, explanatory and connecting members of sentence 251

Punctuation marks in meaningful combinations with subordinating conjunctions or allied words 256

Punctuation marks for comparative phrases 258

Signs punctuation for introductory and plug-in constructions 261

Punctuation marks for introductory words, combinations of words and sentences 261

Punctuation marks for insertions 268

Signs punctuation when addressing 273

Signs punctuation for interjections and interjection sentences 276

Punctuation marks for affirmative, negative and interrogative-exclamation words 278

Punctuation marks in a complex sentence 280

Punctuation marks in a complex sentence 280

Punctuation marks in a complex sentence 284

Punctuation marks in a non-union complex sentence 294

Punctuation marks in complex syntactic structures 299

Punctuation marks for direct speech and quotations 301

Punctuation marks for direct speech 301

Punctuation marks for quotations 307

Marking quotes and “alien” words with quotation marks 310

Marking unusually used words with quotation marks - 311 Combination of punctuation marks, the sequence of their arrangement; interaction of signs in complex structures 313

Combination of punctuation marks and the sequence of their arrangement 313

Interaction of punctuation marks in complex constructions 317

Punctuation marks when preparing lists and rules for categorization 320

Index of words to the section “Spelling” 325

Subject index to the section “Punctuation” 435

Index of words to the section “Punctuation” 460

Conditional abbreviations 478

Preface
The proposed reference book was prepared by the Russian Language Institute. V.V. Vinogradov RAS and the Orthographic Commission at the Department of Historical and Philological Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It is the result of many years of work by the Spelling Commission, which includes linguists, university teachers, methodologists, and high school teachers.

The following people took part in the work of the commission, which repeatedly discussed and approved the text of the reference book: Ph.D. Philol. Sciences B. 3. Book-China, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences, Professor N. S. Valgina, teacher of Russian language and literature S. V. Volkov, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor V.P. Grigoriev, Doctor of Pedagogy. Sciences, Professor A.D. Deykina, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences, Associate Professor E. V. Dzhandzhakova, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences N. A. Eskova, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences A. A. Zaliznyak, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences O. E. Ivanova, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences O. E. Karmakova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor L.L. Kasatkin, Academician of the Russian Academy of Education V.G. Kostomarov, Academician of the Moscow Academy of Pedagogical Education and the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences O.A. Krylova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor L.P. Krysin, Doctor of Philology. Sciences S. M. Kuzmina, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor O. V. Kukushkina, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor V.V. Lopatin (chairman of the commission), teacher of Russian language and literature V.V. Lukhovitsky, head. Laboratory of Russian Language and Literature of the Moscow Institute for Advanced Studies of Education Workers N. A. Nefedova, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences I.K. Sazonova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences A.V. Superanskaya, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences L.K. Cheltsova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor A.D. Shmelev, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor M.V. Shulga. Recently deceased members of the commission took an active part in discussing and editing the text of the rules: Dr. Philol. Sciences, Professors V.F. Ivanova, B.S. Schwarzkopf, E.N. Shiryaev, Ph.D. Sciences N.V. Solovyov.

The incompleteness of the “Rules” of 1956 is largely explained by changes that have occurred in the language itself: many new words and types of words have appeared, the spelling of which is not regulated by the “Rules”. For example, in modern language, units that stand on the border between a word and a part of a word have become more active; among them there were such as mini, maxi, video, audio, media, retro etc. In the “Rules” of 1956 it is impossible to find the answer to the question of whether such units should be written together with the next part of the word or through a hyphen. Many recommendations on the use of capital letters are outdated. Punctuation rules need clarification and additions, reflecting the stylistic diversity and dynamism of modern speech, especially in the mass press.

This reference book on Russian spelling is intended for teachers of the Russian language, editorial and publishing workers, and anyone writing in Russian.

To facilitate the use of the reference book, the text of the rules is supplemented with word indexes and a subject index.

SPELLING

INTRODUCTION General information about Russian writing

Russian alphabet(a set of letters arranged in a conditional but strictly defined order) consists of 33 letters, each of which exists in two versions: uppercase (capital) and lowercase (small).

-1	Letter name	Letter	Letter name	Letter	Letter name
Ahh	A	Ll	ale	Tsts	this
BB	bae	Mm	Em	Hh	what
Vv	ve	Nn	en	Shh	sha
GG	ge	Ooh	O	Shch	now
Dd	DE	pp	pe	Kommersant	hard sign
Her, Yoyo 1	her	RR	er	Yyy	s
LJ	same	Ss	es	bb	soft sign
Zz	ze	Tt	te	Uh	uh
Ii	And	Ooh	U	Yuyu	Yu
Yikes	and short	Ff	ef	Yaya	I
Kk	ka	Xx	Ha

The basic principle of using letters

The general rules for the use of letters determine the transmission in writing of paired hard and soft consonants, as well as the sound C] 2 (“yot”).

Alphabet of 33 letters (with sequential use of letters e) used only in texts for special purposes (see § 5 of the rules). In ordinary writing the letter e used selectively (see § 5, paragraphs 1,2). 2

C] is a consonant found, for example, at the beginning of a word Christmas tree roll] or at the end of a word the battle.

There are no simple one-to-one relationships between the sounds and letters of the alphabet. To convey vowels, ten letters are used, forming five letter pairs: a-z, y - yu, o - yo 9 uh 9 s - and 1. 21 letters are used to convey consonants: b, c, d, d, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x, c, h, w,sch, y.

In Russian writing there are no special letters to designate paired hard and soft consonants. Each pair of consonants, differing only in hardness and softness, is denoted by the same letter: b And b"(" - sign of softness) - letter b, and and P"- letter l, d And d"- letter d etc. The hardness-softness of paired consonants is indicated by the letter following them: the hardness of the consonant is indicated by the letters a, y, oh, uh,s, for softness - the letters I, yu, yo, e, and, eg: glad - row, bow - hatch, push - heifer, sir- grey, ardor - drank 2 . At the end of a word or before a hard consonant, the softness of the paired consonant is indicated by the letter b (soft sign), cf.: con - horse, shelter - blood, treasure - luggage; ban ka- bathhouse, slide - bitter, really - only.

Here and below throughout the text of the rules, sounds are indicated by direct bold font and the letters are in bold italics.

2 In pairs of letters e - e, s - and this principle of transferring hard-soft sti consonants are not observed entirely consistently (see §9 and 11 for details).

However, to transmit the shock O after letters w, w, h, sch uses Xia not just a letter O, but also yo, eg with a knife But take care; after the letter ts not only written And, but also s, eg beaver lamb, But Gypsy(see about this in § 15, 18,19).

Consonant sounds unpaired in hardness and softness w, w, h, shch (sizzling) and ts do not need to indicate hardness or softness using the next letter. To indicate hardness f, w no need to write a letter s, and to denote softness h, sch- letters I, Yu. Therefore, after all the hissing letters, letters are written a, y, and, eg: heat, ball, hour, mercy; bug,noise, miracle, pike; fat, reeds, rank, shield 3 .

To convey a consonant C] there is a special letter - And, but it is usually used after vowels - at the end of a word and before consonants, for example: May, T-shirt, swarm, shrew. Before vowels - at the beginning of a word and after vowels - C] is not indicated by a separate letter, but, together with the next vowel, is spelled out with the letters I,yu, yo, e, eg: apple, fear, south, snake, tree, sings, spruce, arrived*. After the consonants in this case, before the letters I, yu, yo 9 e are written ъ or ь (separators): hug, anniversary, arrived, rise; friends, blizzard, on a bench, gun; after the separation ъ the combination “j + vowel” can also be expressed as a letter and: nightingales.

Thus, the letters I, yu, yo, e, and are used in Russian writing in two functions: to designate vowels while simultaneously indicating the softness of the preceding paired consonant and to convey the combination j with the following vowel.
The basic principle of conveying significant parts of words in writing

The rules of Russian orthography are based on the principle of not indicating in writing the exchange of sounds under the influence of position in a word.

The sounds within a word are in unequal conditions. In some positions (phonetic positions) all vowels or all consonants are distinguished; These are independent, strong positions. Vowels a, o, and, u, uh differ under stress: small, they say, sweet, mule, chalk. Paired consonants in terms of voicedness and voicelessness differ before vowels (goat - spit, ponds - rods) , before unpaired voiced consonants n, l, m, r(hard and soft) and "iot" (wicked - layer, tear - spend, beat - I drink), and also before V(hard and soft): castle - creator, beast - check. Hard and soft consonants differ before vowels (here - bale) and at the end of the word (throne - touch), and also before hard consonants (jar - bathhouse).

For some deviations from this pattern (in words of foreign origin and in compound abbreviated words), see § 26.

In other positions, not all sounds are different; These are dependent, weak positions. Yes, percussion sounds A And O(myself And som) in an unstressed position they coincide in one sound A: s[a]lsh. After soft consonants in an unstressed position they do not differ, they coincide in one sound And four vowel sounds that differ under stress - O, A, And, uh, for example: [h"k]lash, [T l m]nut, [p"irsh, [d"i]ld, cf. under stress [t"6]swim, \T b A]No, [p"i]/ib, [d "3 ]lo. Consonants paired in terms of voicedness and voicelessness do not differ at the end of a word, as well as before voiceless and voiced consonants, for example: du[n] - su[i] 9 ska[s]ka - dye,by[d]I'll take - o[d]I'll take (cf. before vowels: oaks - soups, fairy tales - paints, pick - select).

Sounds in the non-discriminating position are checked in the same significant part of the word (morpheme) by the corresponding sounds in the discriminating position. For example, writing a letter O in place of an unstressed vowel A in a word b[z]r6sya verified by the form fights in which the vowel of the root is stressed. Unstressed sound And in a word [t"i]yellow checked by a stressed vowel in a word heaviness, V [l"and]snoy - percussion e(forest), and in fox - percussion And(foxes). Paired voiceless and voiced consonants in the non-discriminating position are also checked by the discriminating position - for example, before a vowel: du[n] - oaks, soup] - soups; ska[s]ka - fairy tales, kra[s]ka - paints.

The same principle applies when transmitting vowels and consonants in prefixes, suffixes, and endings (see the corresponding sections of the rules).

The spelling of words in which the sound in the position of non-distinction cannot be verified is determined in dictionary order, cf. unchecked vowels in roots: dog, deer, cabbage, now, meridian, knight; unverified consonants in roots: where, Tuesday, station, elevator.

IN Russian orthography has some deviations from the general principle of writing letters in significant parts of a word, when, due to tradition, the wrong letter is written that is suggested by the test. For example, in the word swim pronounced under stress A, however, without stress in words with the same root swimmer And swimmer letter is written O; in the console once-/rose- under stress occurs only O(eg. painting, drawing), however, according to tradition, the letter is written without an accent A (eg: write it down, play it out).

Such deviations are often explained by historical alternations of sounds within one root (or another morpheme). As a result, one root (or another morpheme) can have different letters written in different words. In these cases, the rules give the wording: “you should not check with such and such a word (such and such a form of the word).” For example, in verbal roots you cannot use a paired verb of the opposite form for verification (see § 34, note 2).

Features of the spelling of certain categories of words

In words of foreign origin (especially in proper names), as well as in abbreviations, there are spellings that deviate from the general rules for the use of letters. For example, in some foreign words after the letters and,w, c letters are written I,yu, e (brochure, parachute, jury, pshute, Jules, Siauliai, Tsyavlovsky, Zurich; ren, Shenyang, Lao She), and after n - letters s And uh(Tuong, Chengdu). Such spellings may reflect some features of pronunciation - for example, soft and And w, solid h.

Only in words of foreign origin are letter combinations found ya, yu, ye, yi, yo, yo, eg: sequoia, sequoia (vin. p.), Goya, paranoia, paranoia (gen. p.), York, area, broth. Combinations of letters uncharacteristic for the Russian language are also found in abbreviations, for example: Housing office, Chez (frequency electromagnetic sensing), YAR (Yemen Arab Republic).

The special role of tradition in the writing of surnames (both Russian and foreign) is determined by their legal status: they retain the letter form recorded in official documents. For example, there are surnames Chorny And Cherny, Okhapkin And Akhapkin, Komarovsky And Komorowski, Syroezhkin And Syroeshkin, Bessonov And Bezsonov, Kuzmin And Kuzmin.

RULES FOR USING LETTERS General rules 1

Vowels not after sibilants andts 2

Letters a - I, u - Yu § 1. Letters a, y used:

To convey vowels a, y at the beginning of a word and after vowels, for example: hell, scarlet, army, gasp, liana, oasis, Loire; mind, morning,the bumpkin, the spider, will teach.

To convey vowels a, y ball, decoction, tie,gift, weaver, wish; storm, owl, take, drown.

§ 2. Letters I, yu used:

1. To convey vowels a, y and at the same time to indicate

on the softness of the preceding consonant, for example: woodpecker, chilly-
no,soft, invigorating, all over; dunes, loves, drives, everywhere, cos-
Tyum.

Note. Letters I, yu after the consonants g, k, x are found only in words of foreign language origin, including proper names, for example: gyaur, Ganja, viper, gyus, Hugo, Gunther; Kyakhta, manicure, ditch, Kuchelbecker, Kyushu; Hyanga, Huebner.

2. To convey the combination \ followed by a vowel A
or at:

Some general rules for the use of letters have features associated with the writing of individual words or significant parts of words. This applies, for example, to the rules for writing letters And- s, writing O- eafter hissing and c. However, for the convenience of the user, in the set of spelling rules, these features are traditionally given together with general rules.

2 The rules in this section are illustrated primarily by ramie with a vowel under stress. On the writing of letters conveying unstressed new vowel sounds, see subsequent sections of the rules.

apple, lighthouse, Yalta;southern, cabin, Yura;

Note. About the spelling of the letter combinations “I, yu see § 26, paragraph 3.

b) after consonants; in this case before the letters I,Yu dividing marks are written b or ъ (see § 27-28), e.g.: tub, monkey, blizzard, fifty; nuclear-free, manifest, two-tiered, pre-anniversary.

Letters O - e 1 § 3. Letter O used:

1 . To convey a vowel O at the beginning of a word and after vowels,
eg: axis, correspondence, theory, biographer, firsthand, peninsula.

To convey a vowel O and at the same time to indicate the hardness of the preceding consonant, for example: fight, plant, dove, kind, knot, yoke, wears, forehead, liter, juice, steam room, hundred.

In a limited range of words of foreign origin, the letter O used:

a) to convey a vowel O after ), transmitted by the letter th

at the beginning of a word and in the middle of a word after vowels, for example: iodine,
major (for a list of such words, see § 26, paragraph 2);

In that variety of Russian writing where the letter e used only selectively (see § 5), letter pair o - yo matches the pair O- e.

b) to convey a combination) followed by a vowel O V

composition of letter combinations ъо after a consonant; list of basics
2 words: battalion, broth, canyon, companion, cotillion, car-
manola, cro-magnon, lotion, medallion, minion, pavilion, pa-
pillottes, postman, señor, señora, señor, señora, champignon-
he, hairpiece; quadrillion, quintillion, sextillion (along with
options quadrillion, quintillion, sextillion, I convey-
different pronunciation); million (writing conveying
one of the pronunciation options words a million); in own
puff names: Avignon, Asuncion, Guillaume, Mignon, Tagloni, Frshpjof. In rare cases, the letter combination yo written to convey the sounds of an unstressed syllable: guillotine, guillotinate, senorat, senorita, señoria, signorina, signoria, Murillo.

§ 4. Letter e used:

1. To convey a stressed vowel O and at the same time for

indications of the softness of the preceding consonant, for example:
child, oars, nail, breech, light, swept, fawn,
motley, ribs, donkey, shabby, growing.

Note 1. Letter e after the consonants g, k, x found mainly in words of foreign origin, including proper names, for example: gyoza, girls, liqueur; Goethe, Hölderlin, Gothenburg, Cologne, Koestler, Höglund. Combination kyo also presented in words with a foreign suffix -yor type kiosk, alarmist and in personal forms of the verb weave: weave, weave, weave, weave.

Note 2. The letter £ can be written in place of a vowel O, having a side accent (for example: three-year, four-meter, dark red), and also in place of an unstressed vowel O in words of foreign language origin (for example: Goethean, Königsberger).

2. To transmit a combination j followed by a stressed voice

nom O:

a) at the beginning of a word and after vowels, for example: tree, hedgehog, loan,

coffee, tip, sings, buoy;

b) after consonants; in this case before the letter e are written

separators b or ъ(see § 27-28), e.g.: drinks,
will rise, linen, serious, life; volume, removable.

Note. About use after separation b instead of e letters O(in words like broth, guillotine) see § 3, paragraph 36.

Note to paragraphs.1 and 2. In an unstressed position the letter e corresponds to the letter e, for example: honey - honey, ice - icy, carried - carried, lucky - will take out, hedgehog-hedgehog.

The use of the letter е in texts for various purposes 1

§ 5. Use of letters e can be sequential or selective.

Consistent use of letters e mandatory in the following types of printed texts:

a) in texts with sequentially placed characters

accents (see § 116);

b) in books addressed to young children;

c) in educational texts for primary school students and
foreigners studying Russian.

Note 1. Consistent use e adopted for the illustrative part of these rules.

Note 3. Words with letters in dictionaries e are placed in the general alphabet of words with the letter e, eg: barely, unctuous, fir-tree, spruce, spruce, fir-tree, fir-tree, spruce; to have fun, to have fun, gaiety, cheerful, fun.

In ordinary printed texts the letter e used selectively. It is recommended to use it in the following cases.

To prevent misidentification of a word, e.g.: everything, sky, summer, perfect (in contrast to the words everything, sky, summer, perfect), including to indicate the place of stress in a word, for example: bucket, let's find out (Unlike bucket, we'll find out).

To indicate the correct pronunciation of a word that is either rare, not well known, or has a common mispronunciation, e.g.: gyozy, surfing, flair, harder, lye, including to indicate the correct accent, for example: fable, brought, carried away, condemned, newborn, spy.

Rule § 5 applies to all cases of using the letter е, including AND AFTER SISSING ZH, 10, Chusch.

3. In proper names - surnames, geographical names, for example: Konenkov, Neyolova, Catherine Deneuve, Schrödinger, Dezhnev, Koshelev, Chebyshev, Veshenskaya, Olekma.

Letters e - e

§ 6. Letter uh written at the beginning of the root to convey the vowel e (without a preceding one)):

At the beginning of the following native Russian pronominal words and interjections: this (this, this, these), this, this, this, this, this; eva, evon, ege, ege-ge, hey, ek, eh, ehma, eh-he.

At the beginning of words of foreign origin (including proper names), for example: eureka, export, emergency, hellenic, epic, era, ethics, echo, etna, eric (with letter uh, conveying a stressed vowel); eucalyptus, egoism, equator, exam, economy, electricity, element, elite, emotion, energy, epigraph, epidemic, escort, aesthetics, etymology, ether, Everest, Oedipus, Aeschylus(here the letter uh conveys an unstressed vowel).

In letter names el, em, en, er, es, ef, as well as at the beginning of abbreviations written by the names of letters, and words formed from the names of letters and from letter abbreviations, for example: Socialist-Revolutionary, nth, ensky, emka.

After prefixes or components of complex and compound words (both after vowels and consonants). Examples:

a) after vowels: antielectron, anti-SR, de-escala-

tion, unethical, reexamination, step by step, therefore, reexamination
port; dielectric, movie screen, television screen, megaerg, microelements
ment, polyester, mezzanine, five-story",

b) after consonants: electrodeless, under-screen, pre-examination

mentation, different, save, super-economical, sub-equivalent
torial, super elite; two-story, three-element,
liteconomy, sanitary and epidemiological station, Mosenergo, Ministry of Economy.

§ 7. Not at the beginning of the root after vowels (in words of foreign origin) are written as a letter uh, so and e. Their choice depends on the preceding vowel.

1. After letters her and is written e. List of basic words: he-

Yenna, register, extravaganza; hygiene, hyena, sharp, diet, realtor, si-
hundred, spaniel, fiesta and words on -ent: applicant, client,
ingredient, coefficient, patient etc. (with the letter e, I convey-
shchi stressed vowel); fan, leer, player, Jesuit, hierarchy,
hieroglyph, myelitis, pyelitis, piety, requiem, trier (here the letter
e conveys an unstressed vowel).

Note 1. In words conveyor And fireworks after e is written yeah(see § 26, paragraph 3).

Note 2. In some proper names after And written with letters, for example: Marietta, Gliere.

2. After letters ah, oh,y, y written e. List of basic words:

duel, duet, maestro, minuet, pirouette, poet, poetry, poem, si-
louette, figurine (here the letter uh conveys a stressed vowel);
aloe, airfield (and other words with initial part aero-),
firewall, canoe, coefficient, lues, maestoso, muezzin, fa-
eton, fouette (here the letter uh conveys an unstressed vowel). That
in proper names, for example: Puerto Rico, Wales, Hemingu-
hey Maugham, Laertes, Aelita.

Exceptions: in words project, design, projection, projector and other similar roots, trajectory, introjection, and also in words -er (eg. buer, gaer, fraer, interviewer) letter is written e.

Note to paragraphs. 1 and 2. Regardless of the preceding letter, they are written with uh words with a second part -hedron: hexahedron, octahedron, tetrahedron, rhombohedron, trihedron, polyhedron.

§ 8. Not at the beginning of the root after consonants, the letter e is written to convey the vowel e and at the same time to indicate the hardness of the preceding consonant in the following cases.

In a few common nouns of foreign origin. List of basic words: mayor, master "teacher, master" plein air, peer, racket, rap, sir; the same in words derived from them, for example: mayor's office, peerage, racketeer. The range of other words (mostly highly specialized) is determined by a spelling dictionary.

In many proper names of foreign origin, for example: Bacon, David, Deng Xiaoping, Davis, Rayleigh, Rambo,

Salinger, Sam, Sasson, Thatcher, Teffi (personal names and surnames), Maryland, Taipei, Ulan-Ude, Yellow River (geographical names). Letter uh is preserved in any words derived from such proper names, as well as when they transform into common nouns, for example: Ulan-Ude, Rayleigh (physical unit), sasson (a haircut).

3. In letter names be, ve, ge, de, ze, pe, te, and also as part of

abbreviations written by the names of letters and words formed
bathrooms from letter abbreviations, for example: armored personnel carriers,
GPE officer, KGB officer.

Note. In words SR, Enes And Social Democratic Party- in old abbreviations denoting members of some political parties at the beginning of the 20th century - the letter is traditionally written e.

4. In sound abbreviations and words formed from them,

eg: HPP, CHPP, VTEK, NEP, FER (physical equivalent
x-ray), VTEKOVSKY, NEPMAN.

§ 9. In other cases, the letter is written not at the beginning of the root after the consonants e.

Moreover, in all native Russian words the letter e indicates the softness of the preceding consonant, e.g.: white, wind, word, leg, deed, in the water, underground, trace, laudatory, exchange, wall, census, endure, cut, grow old, spring, reading, ways.

However, in words of foreign origin spelled with the letter e, the preceding consonant may be pronounced firmly. So, after letters conveying a soft consonant, the letter e written in words asbestos, version, ghetto, despot, zebra, comet, lady, pioneer, subscriber, aspect, watercolor, sector, patent, defect and in a number of others. After letters conveying a hard consonant, e written in words baby, dandy, delta, model, eczema, cousin, slang, businessman, inertia, phonetics, cappella, rugby, rating, dispensary, setter, cottage, parterre, stand, pace and many others, as well as in indeclinable common nouns consistently written with the final letter e, eg: meringue, chimpanzee, macrame, summary, pince-nez, tour, coupe, corrugated, puree, dash, cabaret, fricassee, highway, essay, variety show, décolleté, karate, cafe, and in words with a foreign suffix -essa (type poetess, flight attendant, baroness); in a number of proper names, for example: Carmen, Nehru, Roerich, Time, Dantes, Taylor, Delphi, Saint Gotthard.

§ 10. In the following cases the letter e written to convey the combination ) followed by a vowel e:

At the beginning of a word, for example: huntsman, caustic, ride, spruce, if, heresy, ride, Eva, Yelnya, Yeisk.

After vowels in Russian (not borrowed) words, for example: stop by, move, beating, arrive, military, rapture, eat, bark beetle, sweet tooth, leave, vanity.

Note to paragraphs. 1 and 2. 0 writing letter combinations yeah see §26, paragraph 3.

3. After consonants; while before the letter e are written once

divisive ee (see § 27-28), e.g.: necklace, premiere, chance-
nier, croupier, play, courier, entertainer, tub (dat. p.), in the article,
Moliere; drive in, drive up, leave, disconnect, eat,
supernatural, pan-European, injection, courier.

Letters i - s §eleven. Letter And is written:

To convey a vowel And at the beginning of a word and after vowels, for example: name, long ago, spark; ingratiate, frantic, drink, win, cruise, suite, egg.

To convey a vowel And and at the same time to indicate the softness of the preceding consonant, for example: battle, cherry, perish, drive, thrust, tanker, downpour, house, lazy, drink, burns, strength, go, countess, dry.

To transmit a combination j followed by a vowel And after consonants; in this case before And dividing is written b (see § 28), e.g.: passerine, vary, articles, Ilyin.

In the following cases the letter And transmits sound s after hard consonants:

a) after prefixes of foreign language origin: hyper-, des-, inter-, counter-, post-, sub-, super-, trans-, and also after the initial element pan-, eg: hyperinflation, disinformation, disintegration, counter-play, post-impressionism, post-infarction (cf. pre-infarction, see § 12, paragraph 2), sub-inspector, superinfection, trans-Iranian, pan-Islamism;

b) after the Russian prefix above-, eg: super sophisticated,
super interesting;

Note1. After the Russian prefix inter- letter And written according to the rule of § 14.

Note2. 0 spelling at the beginning of the root after Russian letter prefixes s see § 12, paragraph 2.

c) after the first parts of complex and complex abbreviations

words, for example: two-needle, three-pulse, pedagogical institute,
sports equipment, political information, state property, state inspectorate
tion, financial inspector, world of arts specialist (from World of Art).

§ 12. Letter s used to convey a vowel s and at the same time to indicate the hardness of the preceding consonant:

1. Not after prefixes, for example: true story, slave, howl, call,

guide, goats, whip, baby, thought, sick, dust, hurry,
scour, full, desert, snort.

Note. Letter s after consonants g, I,X used: in single interjections and words formed from them (shoot, shoot, shoot); in words of foreign origin, including proper names, for example: akyn, kok-sagyz, Gy-dan, Kyzylkum, Kyshtym, Khirdalan, Khamkhyn; in colloquial forms of patronymics like Olegych, Markych(see § 43, note).

2. After Russian prefixes ending in a consonant

(except for consoles above- And inter-), eg: needleless (cf. needle),
artless (illusion), artless (skillful), hopeless
(outcome), play out (play), find (search), take
(have), similar: seek, supra-individual, ordinary
vet, decalcification, named, play along, support-
huddle, pre-infarction, background, make fun of, search,
improvise.

Note1 . After other prefixes, a letter is not written on the consonant s, but it is written And (see §11, paragraphs 4a and 46).

Note 2. Letter s at the beginning of a word occurs only in words of a special type - in the name of a letter s, in interjection oh, in words poke And ykanka, denoting features of pronunciation, as well as in rare foreign words, including proper names, for example: yr(name of songs among some Turkic peoples), Yym, Ynykchansky(river and village in Yakutia).
Vowels after sibilants andts Letters a, y

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