Isaac Newton proved it. Newton's discoveries

The complete picture of the world created by the great English scientist Isaac Newton still amazes scientists. Newton's merit is that both huge celestial bodies and the smallest grains of sand driven by the wind obey the laws he discovered.

Isaac Newton was born in England on January 4, 1643. At the age of 26 he became a professor of mathematics and physics and taught for 27 years. In the first years of his scientific activity, he became interested in optics, where he made many discoveries. He personally made the first reflecting telescope, which magnified 40 times (a considerable amount at that time).

Since 1676, Newton began studying mechanics. The scientist outlined the main discoveries in this area in the monumental work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.” “Principles” described everything that was known about the simplest forms of motion of matter. Newton's teachings about space, mass and force were of great importance for the further development of physics. Only the discoveries of the 20th century, especially Einstein, showed the limitations of the laws on which Newton's theory of classical mechanics was built. But despite this, classical mechanics has not lost its practical significance.

Isaac Newton laid down the law of universal gravitation and the three laws of mechanics, which became the basis of classical mechanics. He gave a theory of the movement of celestial bodies, creating the foundations of celestial mechanics. He developed differential and integral calculus, made many discoveries in the science of optics and color theory, and developed a number of other mathematical and physical theories. Newton's scientific works were far ahead of the general scientific level of his time, and therefore many of them were poorly understood by his contemporaries. Many of his hypotheses and predictions turned out to be prophetic, for example, the deflection of light in the gravitational field, the phenomenon of polarization of light, the interconversion of light and matter, the hypothesis about the oblateness of the Earth at the poles, etc.

The following words are carved on the grave of the great scientist:

"Here lies
Sir Isaac Newton
Who with the almost divine power of his mind
First explained
Using your own mathematical method
Movements and shapes of the planets,
The paths of comets, the ebb and flow of the ocean.
He was the first to explore the variety of light rays
And the resulting characteristics of colors,
Which until that time no one even suspected.
Diligent, insightful and faithful interpreter
Nature, antiquities and scripture,
He glorified the Almighty Creator in his teaching.
He proved the simplicity required by the Gospel with his life.
Let mortals rejoice that in their midst
Once upon a time there lived such an ornament of the human race.

On the statue of Sir Isaac Newton(1643-1727), erected in Trinity College, Cambridge, the inscription “In mind he surpassed the human race” is carved.

Today's publication contains brief biographical information about the life path and scientific achievements of the great scientist. We will find out when and where Isaac Newton lived, in which city he was born, as well as some interesting facts about him.

Brief biography of Isaac Newton

Where was Isaac Newton born? The great English mechanic, astronomer and physicist, creator of classical mechanics, President of the Royal London was born in the village of Woolsthorpe in Lincolnshire in death.

Isaac Newton's date of birth may have two designations: according to the one in force in England at the time of the scientist’s birth - December 25, 1642, according to which began in England in 1752 - January 4, 1643.

The boy was born premature and very sickly, but lived 84 years and accomplished so much in science that would be enough for a dozen lifetimes.

As a child, Newton, according to contemporaries, was withdrawn, loved to read and constantly made technical toys:, etc.

After graduating in 1661, he entered Trinity College, Cambridge University. Even then, a strong and courageous Newton had developed - the desire to get to the bottom of everything, intolerance to deception and oppression, indifference to noisy fame.

In college, he immersed himself in the study of the works of his predecessors - Galileo, Descartes, Kepler, as well as the mathematicians Fermat and Huygens.

In 1664, a plague epidemic broke out in Cambridge, and Newton had to return to his native village. He spent two years at Woolsthorpe, and during this time his main mathematical discoveries were made.

At the age of 23, the young scientist was already fluent in the methods of differential and integral calculus. At the same time, as he himself claimed, Newton discovered universal gravitation and proved that white sunlight is a mixture of many colors, and also derived the famous formula of “Newton’s binomial.”

It is not without reason that they say that the greatest scientific discoveries are most often made by very young people. This happened with Isaac Newton, but all these epoch-making scientific achievements were published only twenty, and some even forty, years later. The desire not only to discover, but also to thoroughly prove the truth always remained the main thing for Newton.

The works of the great scientist opened up a completely new picture of the world to his contemporaries. It turned out that celestial bodies located at enormous distances are interconnected by gravitational forces into a single system.

In the course of his research, Newton determined the mass and density of the planets and found that the planets closest to the Sun are the most dense.

He also proved that it is not an ideal ball: it is “flattened” at and “swollen” at the equator, and is explained by the action of gravity and the Sun.

Scientific research and discoveries of Isaac Newton

In order to list all the scientific achievements of Isaac Newton, more than a dozen pages are needed.

He created the corpuscular theory, suggesting that light is a stream of tiny particles, and discovered the dispersion of light, interference and diffraction.

He built the first one - the prototype of those giant telescopes that are installed today in the largest observatories in the world.

He discovered the fundamental law of universal gravitation and the main laws of classical mechanics, developed the theory of celestial bodies, and his three-volume work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” brought the scientist worldwide fame.

Among other things, Newton turned out to be a wonderful economist - when he was appointed director of the British court, he quickly put money circulation in the country in order and started issuing a new coin.

The scientist’s works often remained misunderstood by his contemporaries, he was subjected to fierce criticism from his colleagues - mathematicians and astronomers, but in 1705, Queen Anne of Great Britain elevated the son of a simple farmer to knighthood. For the first time in history, the title of knight was awarded for scientific merit.

The Legend of the Apple and Newton

The story of the discovery of the law of universal gravitation - when Newton's thoughts were interrupted by the fall of a ripe apple, from which the scientist concluded about the mutual attraction of bodies with different masses, and then mathematically described this dependence with the famous formula - is simply a legend.

However, for a whole century, the British showed visitors “that same” apple tree, and when the tree grew old, it was cut down and made into a bench, which is preserved as a historical monument.

The great English physicist Isaac Newton was born on December 25, 1642, on Christmas Day in the village of Woolsthorpe in Lincolnshire. His father died before the child was born, his mother gave birth to him prematurely, and the newborn Isaac was amazingly small and frail. Isaac was raised in his grandmother's house. At the age of 12 he attended public school in Grantham and was a weak student. But he showed an early inclination towards mechanics and invention. So, as a boy of 14 years old, he invented a water clock and a type of scooter. In his youth, Newton loved painting, poetry, and even wrote poetry. In 1656, when Newton was 14 years old, his stepfather, Rev. Smith, died. The mother returned to Woolsthorpe and took Isaac to her place to help with business. At the same time, he turned out to be a poor assistant and preferred to study mathematics rather than agriculture. His uncle once found him under a hedge with a book in his hands, busy solving a mathematical problem. Struck by such a serious and active direction of such a young man, he persuaded Isaac’s mother to send him to study further.
On June 5, 1660, when Newton was not yet 18 years old, he was admitted to Trinity College. Cambridge University was at that time one of the best in Europe. Newton paid attention to mathematics, not so much for the sake of the science itself, with which he was still little familiar, but because he had heard a lot about astronomy and wanted to check whether it was worth studying this mysterious wisdom? Little is known about Newton's first three years at Cambridge. In 1661 he was a “subsizzar”, the name given to poor students whose duties included serving the members of the college. Only in 1664 did he become a real student.
In 1665 he received the degree of Bachelor of Fine Arts. It is quite difficult to decide the question of when Newton's first scientific discoveries date back to. We can only state that it is quite early. In 1669 he received the Lucasian chair of mathematics, which had previously been occupied by his teacher Barrow. At this time, Newton was already the author of the binomial and the fluxion method, studied the dispersion of light, designed the first reflecting telescope, and approached the discovery of the law of gravitation. Newton's teaching load consisted of one hour of lectures per week and four hours of rehearsals. As a teacher he was not popular and his lectures on optics were poorly attended.
The reflecting telescope (second, improved) designed in 1671 was the reason for Newton being elected a member of the Royal Society of London on January 11, 1672. At the same time, he refused membership, citing a lack of funds to pay membership fees. The Council of the Society considered it possible to make an exception and, in view of his scientific merits, exempted him from paying fees.
His fame as a scientist gradually grew. But Newton was no stranger to social activities. In the rather difficult political situation of that time, the universities of Oxford and Cambridge played a significant role. For defending the position of the university's independence from royal power, he was proposed as a candidate and elected to parliament. In 1687, his famous “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” were published. Moreover, in 1692, an event occurred that shook his nervous system so much that for 2 years, at certain intervals, the great man showed signs of obvious mental disorder and there were periods when he experienced attacks of real, so-called quiet insanity, or melancholy. As another great scientist of that time, Christiaan Huygens, testifies (in a letter dated May 22, 1694): “The Scotsman Doctor Colm informed me that the famous geometer Isaac Newton fell into insanity a year and a half ago, partly from excessive work, partly as a result of grief caused he suffered a fire that destroyed his chemical laboratory and many important manuscripts. Then his friends took him for treatment and, confining him in a room, forced him to take medications, willy-nilly, from which his health improved so much that now he is beginning to understand his book “Principles...”. Fortunately, the illness passed without a trace.
Newton was already 50 years old. Despite his enormous fame and the brilliant success of his book, he lived in very cramped circumstances, and, sometimes, he was simply in need. In 1695, his financial situation, however, changed. Newton's close friend Charles Montagu achieved one of the highest positions in the state: he was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer. Through him, Newton received the position of superintendent of the mint, which brought in 400-500 pounds of annual income. Under his leadership, in 2 years, the entire coinage of England was minted. In 1699 he was appointed director of the mint (12-15 thousand pounds). He left the department and moved to London permanently. In 1703, Newton was elected president of the Royal Society. In 1704, his second most important book was published. "Optics". In 1705, Queen Anne elevated him to knighthood, he occupies a rich apartment, keeps servants, and has a carriage for trips. On March 20, 1727, at the age of 85, Isaac Newton died and was magnificently buried in Westminster Abbey. A medal was struck in Newton’s honor with the inscription: “Happy is he who knows the reasons.”

Newton's main discoveries

Discovery of calculus (analysis) of infinitesimals (differential and integral calculus).
A successor to Barrow, his teacher in mathematics, Newton introduces the concepts of fluent and fluxions. Fluent is a current, variable value. All fluents have one argument - time. Fluxion is the derivative of the fluent function with respect to time, that is, fluxion is the rate of change of fluent. Fluxions are approximately proportional to fluent increments, occurring in equal, very short periods of time.
A method was given for calculating fluxions (finding derivatives), based on the method of expansion into infinite series. Along the way, many problems were solved: finding the minimum and maximum of a function, determining the curvature and inflection points, calculating the areas closed by curves. Newton also developed the technique of integration (by expanding expressions into infinite series).
It is clear how much Newton mastered the images of continuous motion when creating mathematical analysis. His uniformly current independent variable is, as a rule, time. Fluents are variable quantities, for example, a path, that change depending on time. Fluxions are the rates of change of these quantities. Fluents are designated by the letters x, y..., and fluxions by the same letters with dots above them.
Independently of Newton, the famous German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) came to the discovery of differential and integral calculus. There was even a lawsuit between them and their followers about the priority of opening the analysis. As it turned out later, the International Commission to Resolve the Dispute was headed by Newton himself (secretly) and it recognized his priority. Subsequently, it turned out that the Leibniz school developed a more beautiful version of the analysis, but in Newton’s version the “physicality” of the method is more pronounced and important. In general, both Leibniz and Newton worked independently, but Newton completed the work earlier and Leibniz published earlier. Nowadays, analysis mainly uses Leibniz’s approach, including his infinitesimal numbers, the separate existence of which Newton did not consider.
Optical research.
Newton made great achievements in this area of ​​physics. “Optics” is one of his main works.
The main merit was the study of the dispersion (decomposition) of light in a prism and the establishment of the complex composition of light: “Light consists of rays of different refrangibility.” The refractive index depends on the color of light. Newton conducted the famous experiment with crossed prisms, which showed that the decomposition of white light into the colors of the rainbow is not a property of the glass prism, but a property of the light itself. Monochromatic light was highlighted. The main thing is that the color of a beam is its original and unchangeable property. “Every homogeneous light has its own color, corresponding to the degree of its refraction, and such color cannot change during reflections and refractions,”
The reflecting telescope created by Newton is a consequence of Newton’s conviction in the fundamental irremovability of chromatic aberration of lenses due to the dispersion of light in them. Moreover, Newton said that the dispersion is the same for all substances.
Newton studies the colors of thin films. Invents a remarkable arrangement of lenses, which is now known as the installation for obtaining Newtonian rings, both in reflected and transmitted light. He found that the squares of the diameters of the rings increase in the arithmetic progression of odd or even numbers. Thus, he contributed to the study of the phenomenon of interference of light. In the last part of Optics, Newton describes some diffraction phenomena.
In the field of establishing the nature of light, Newton was a supporter of the corpuscular theory. Actually, he substantiated it, as opposed to Huygens' wave theory.
Gravity
Newton began to study the problem of gravitation in the same years 1665-66 as he studied optics and mathematics. At first, he interprets the presence of gravity with the theory of the ether in the Cartesian spirit. The qualitative picture suggested the law of dependence of the force of gravity on distance in inverse proportion to the square of the latter. From here it was not far to the conclusion that the Moon is held in its orbit by the action of the earth's gravity, weakened in proportion to the square of the distance. It was possible to calculate the tension of the gravitational field in lunar orbit and compare it with the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration. The first calculations showed discrepancies. But more accurate measurements of the Earth's radius carried out by Picard made it possible to obtain a satisfactory agreement. The Moon, of course, is continuously falling towards the Earth, while simultaneously moving away from it in a uniform tangential motion.
Further, from Kepler's laws, Newton, through mathematical analysis, comes to the conclusion that the force that holds the planets in orbit around the Sun is the force of mutual gravity, which decreases in proportion to the square of the distance.
The law of gravity remained a hypothesis (experimental proof was obtained only in the 18th century), but Newton, having repeatedly tested it in astronomy, no longer doubted it. Now the law of gravity is represented by a compact formula: F=G m_1 m_2 /(r^2) . This law provided the dynamic basis for all celestial mechanics. For more than 200 years, theoretical physics and astronomy were considered in accordance with this law, until quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity emerged. Newton believed it to be derived purely inductively. He himself found action at a distance meaningless, but refused to publicly discuss the nature of gravity. At the conclusion of “Principles...” Newton makes the following statement: “moving bodies experience no resistance from the omnipresence of God,” i.e. God is a mediator of action at a distance. “I still could not deduce the reason ... for these properties of the gravitational force from the phenomena, but I do not invent hypotheses.”
"Mathematical principles of natural philosophy"
The pinnacle of Newton's scientific creativity was precisely this work, after the publication of which he largely moved away from scientific works. The greatness of the author’s plan, which subjected the system of the world to mathematical analysis, and the depth and rigor of the presentation amazed his contemporaries /2/.
In Newton’s preface (there is also a preface by Cotes, his student), the program of mechanical physics is casually sketched: “We propose this work as the mathematical foundations of physics. The whole difficulty of physics, as will be seen, is to recognize the forces of nature from the phenomena of motion, and then to explain other phenomena using these forces (thus, in books 1 and 2, the law of action of central forces is derived from observable phenomena, and in the third, the found law is applied to the description of the world system). It would be desirable to deduce from the principles of mechanics the rest of the phenomena of nature, reasoning in a similar way, for many things force me to assume that all phenomena are determined by certain forces with which the particles of bodies, due to reasons as yet unknown, either tend to each other and interlock into regular figures, or they mutually repel and move away from each other.”
“Principles...” begin with the “Definitions” section, where definitions of the amount of matter, inertial mass, centripetal force and some others are given. The section concludes with “Instructions”, where the definition of space, time, place, and movement is given. Next comes the section on the axioms of motion, where Newton’s famous 3 laws of mechanics, the laws of motion and the immediate consequences of them are given. Consequently, we are observing a certain imitation of Euclid’s “Principles...”.
Next, “Beginnings...” is divided into 3 books. The first book is devoted to the theory of gravity and movement in the field of central forces, the second - to the doctrine of environmental resistance. In the third book, Newton outlined the established laws of motion of the planets, the Moon, the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn, gave a dynamic interpretation of the laws, outlined the “method of fluxions,” and showed that the force that attracts a stone to the Earth is no different in nature from the force that keeps the Moon in orbit , and the weakening of attraction is associated only with an increase in distance.
Thanks to Newton, the Universe began to be perceived as a well-oiled clockwork mechanism. The regularity and simplicity of the basic principles that explained all observed phenomena were regarded by Newton as proof of the existence of God: “Such a most graceful conjunction of the Sun, planets and comets could not have happened except by the intention and in the power of a wise and powerful being. This one rules everything not as the soul of the world, but as the ruler of the Universe, and according to his dominion he should be called the Lord God Almighty.”
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Isaac Newton, an outstanding English scientist, was born on January 4, 1643. From childhood, Newton was distinguished not only by his desire to understand the world, but also by his desire to create something new. Moreover, these were not only new laws, but also inventions. We will tell you about five inventions of Isaac Newton.

Windmill with mouse

While still a very young man, Newton built a small windmill, which aroused everyone's admiration. However, Newton did not stop there. Instead of the wind, the mill had to be moved by a living miller - Newton assigned this role to the mouse, which moved the wheel. To make the mouse climb up the wheel and thereby set it in motion, he hung a bag of grain over the wheel.

Water clock

To make a water clock, Newton first obtained a large box to house the mechanism. The hour hand was driven by a wheel, which rotated from the action of a piece of wood, and the piece of wood oscillated from large drops of water falling on it. The water clock was so accurate that the pharmacist's family used it.

Subsequently, being a famous scientist, Newton once started a conversation about this clock and said: “The main inconvenience of this kind of mechanism is that water must be passed through a very narrow hole, and it easily becomes clogged, as a result of which the correct movement is gradually disrupted.”

Newton reflector

Newton built a mixed reflecting telescope consisting of a lens and a concave spherical mirror, which Newton made and polished himself. The project of such a telescope was first proposed by scientist James Gregory, but this plan was never realized. Newton's first design also turned out to be unsuccessful, but the next one, with a more carefully polished mirror, despite its small size, gave a 40-fold increase in quality.

The practical importance of the invention was great: astronomical observations served to accurately determine time, which, in turn, was necessary for navigation at sea.

Scooter

Newton's scooter was a trolley like a handcar. The person sitting in the cart, acting on the handle, set the wheels in motion. The inconvenience of such a scooter was that it could only move on a smooth surface. Nevertheless, this invention proves Newton's enormous engineering abilities: many self-taught mechanics went crazy inventing the wheel.

Sir Isaac Newton is an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, creator of classical mechanics, who made the greatest scientific discoveries in the history of mankind.

Isaac Newton was born on January 4, 1643 (Gregorian calendar) in the village of Woolsthorpe in Lincolnshire. He received his name in honor of his father, who died 3 months before the birth of his son. Three years later, Isaac's mother, Anna Ayscough, remarried. Three more children were born into the new family. Isaac Newton was taken into the care of his uncle, William Ayscough.

Childhood

The house where Newton was born

Isaac grew up withdrawn and silent. He preferred reading to communicating with his peers. He loved making technical toys: kites, windmills, water clocks.

At the age of 12, Newton began attending school in Grantham. He lived at that time in the house of the pharmacist Clark. Perseverance and hard work soon made Newton the best student in his class. But when Newton was 16 years old, his stepfather died. Isaac's mother brought him back to the estate and assigned him household responsibilities. But Newton did not like this at all. He did little housekeeping, preferring reading to this boring activity. One day, Newton's uncle, finding him with a book in his hands, was amazed to see that Newton was solving a mathematical problem. Both his uncle and the school teacher convinced Newton’s mother that such a capable young man should continue his studies.

Trinity College

Trinity College

In 1661, 18-year-old Newton was enrolled at Trinity College, Cambridge University, as a sizar student. Such students were not charged tuition fees. They had to pay their tuition by doing various jobs at the University or serving wealthy students.

In 1664, Newton passed the exams, became a student and began to receive a scholarship.

Newton studied, forgetting about sleep and rest. He studied mathematics, astronomy, optics, phonetics, and music theory.

In March 1663, the department of mathematics was opened at the college. It was headed by Isaac Barrow, a mathematician, future teacher and friend of Newton. In 1664 Newton discovered binomial expansion for an arbitrary rational exponent. This was Newton's first mathematical discovery. Newton would later discover a mathematical method for expanding a function into an infinite series. At the end of 1664 he received his bachelor's degree.

Newton studied the works of physicists: Galileo, Descartes, Kepler. Based on their theories, he created universal world system.

Newton’s programmatic phrase: “In philosophy there can be no sovereign except truth...”. Is this where the famous expression came from: “Plato is my friend, but the truth is dearer”?

Years of the Great Plague

The years 1665 to 1667 were the period of the Great Plague. Classes at Trinity College ceased and Newton went to Woolsthorpe. He took all his notebooks and books with him. During these difficult “plague years,” Newton did not stop studying science. Carrying out various optical experiments, Newton proved that white color is a mixture of all colors of the spectrum. Law of Gravity- this is Newton’s greatest discovery, made by him during the “plague years”. Newton finally formulated this law only after the discovery of the laws of mechanics. And these discoveries were published only decades later.

Scientific discoveries

Newton's telescope

At the beginning of 1672, the Royal Society demonstrated reflecting telescope, which made Newton famous. Newton became a member of the Royal Society.

In 1686 Newton formulated three laws of mechanics, described the orbits of celestial bodies: hyperbolic and parabolic, proved that the Sun also obeys the general laws of motion. All this was set out in the first volume of Mathematical Principles.

In 1669, Newton's world system began to be taught at Cambridge and Oxford. Newton also becomes a foreign member of the Paris Academy of Sciences. In the same year, Newton was appointed manager of the Mint. He leaves Cambridge for London.

In 1669 Newton was elected to parliament. He stayed there for only a year. But in 1701 he was elected there again. That same year, Newton resigned as professor at Trinity College.

In 1703, Newton became president of the Royal Society and remained in this position until the end of his life.

In 1704, the monograph “Optics” was published. And in 1705, Isaac Newton was awarded the title of knight for scientific achievements. This happened for the first time in the history of England.

The famous collection of lectures on algebra, published in 1707 and called “Universal Arithmetic,” laid the foundation for the birth numerical analysis.

In the last years of his life, he wrote the “Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms” and prepared a reference book on comets. Newton very accurately calculated the orbit of Halley's comet.

Isaac Newton died in 1727 in Kensington near London. Buried in Westminster Abbey.

Newton's discoveries allowed humanity to make a giant leap in the development of mathematics, astronomy, and physics.