Iron Age general characteristics. Early Iron Age

Many secrets exist in world history. But each study by archaeologists leaves no hope of learning something new in the facts that have been discovered. Exciting and extraordinary are those moments when you realize that a long time ago on the lands that we walk today, huge dinosaurs lived, crusaders fought, ancient people set up camp.

Introduction

World history laid down in its periodization two approaches that are in demand for determining the human race: 1) materials for the manufacture of tools and 2) technologies. Thanks to these approaches, the concepts of "stone", "iron", "bronze" ages arose. Each of these eras has become a separate step in the development of human history, the next cycle of evolution and the knowledge of human capabilities. It is noteworthy that in this process there was no stagnation, the so-called stagnation. From ancient times to the present day, there has been a regular acquisition of knowledge and the latest methods of extracting useful materials. In our article you will learn about the Iron Age and its general characteristics.

Methods for dating time periods in world history

Natural sciences have become an excellent tool in the hands of archaeologists to determine the date in time periods. Today, historians and researchers can make geological dating, they have the right to use the radiocarbon method, as well as dendrochronology. The active development of the most ancient man makes it possible to improve existing technologies.

Five thousand years ago, the so-called written period began in the history of mankind. Therefore, there were other prerequisites for determining the time frame. Historians suggest that the era of the isolation of ancient man from the world of fauna began two million years ago and lasted until the fall of the Western part of the Roman Empire, which happened in 476 AD.

This was the period of antiquity, then the Middle Ages lasted until the Renaissance. The period of modern history lasted until the end of the First World War. And we live in the era of modern times. Outstanding figures of the time set their reference points. For example, Herodotus was actively interested in the struggle of Asia with Europe. Thinkers of a later time considered the formation of the Roman Republic to be the most important event in the development of civilization. However, a huge number of historians agreed on a single assumption - in the Iron Age, art and culture were not of great importance. After all, tools of labor and war came to the fore at that time.

Prerequisites for the emergence of the era of metal

Primitive history is divided into several important eras. For example, the Stone Age includes the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic. The time span from these periods is characterized by the development of man and the latest methods of stone processing.

At first, the hand ax was widely spread from the tools of labor. At the same time, man mastered fire. He made the first clothes from the skin of an animal. Ideas about religion appeared, and also at this time, ancient people began to equip their homes. During the time when man led a semi-nomadic lifestyle, he hunted large and strong animals, so he needed a weapon better than what he had.

The next most important stage in the development of stone processing methods falls at the turn of the millennium and the end of the Stone Age. Then there is agriculture and animal husbandry. And then there is also ceramic production. So in the early Iron Age, ancient man mastered copper and the methods of its processing. The beginning of the era of manufacturing metal products formed the front of activity in advance. The study of the characteristics and properties of metals gradually led to the fact that man discovered bronze and also spread it. The Stone Age, the Iron Age, including the Bronze Age, is all a single and harmonious process of a person's striving for civilization, which is based on mass movements of ethnic groups.

Researchers who studied the era of iron and its duration

Since the spread of metal is usually attributed to the primitive, as well as the early class history of mankind, therefore, the characteristic features of this period are interests in metallurgy and the manufacture of tools.

Even in antiquity, the idea of ​​the division of the ages on the basis of materials was formed, but it has been described more fully in our days. So the early Iron Age was studied, and scientists in various fields continue to study. For example, in Western Europe, the fundamental works about this era were written by Gernes, Tischler, Kostszewski and other scientists.

However, in Eastern Europe similar works and monographs, maps and textbooks were written by Gauthier, Spitsyn, Krakov, Smirnov, Artamonov and Tretyakov. All of them believe that a characteristic feature of the culture of primitive times is the spread of iron. However, each state survived the Bronze and Iron Ages in its own way.

The first of them is considered a prerequisite for the emergence of the second. The Bronze Age was not so extensive within the framework of the development of mankind. As for the chronological framework of the Iron Age, this period took only two centuries from the ninth to the seventh century BC. During this period of time, many tribes of Asia and Europe received a powerful impetus in the promotion of metallurgy. Indeed, at that time, metal remained one of the most important materials for the manufacture of tools and household items, therefore, it influenced the development of modernity and is part of that time.

Cultural background of this era

Despite the fact that the period of the Iron Age did not imply the active development of culture, modernization nevertheless slightly affected this sphere of life of an ancient person. It should be noted:

• First, there were the first economic preconditions for the establishment of working relations and discord in the tribal way of life.
• Secondly, ancient history is marked by the accumulation of certain values, the increase in property inequality, as well as the mutually beneficial exchange of parties.
• Thirdly, the formation of classes in society and the state became widespread and strengthened.
• Fourthly, a huge part of the funds has passed into the private ownership of selected minorities, as well as slavery and progressive stratification of society.

Iron age. Russia

On the lands of modern Russia, iron was first found in the Transcaucasus. Items made of this metal began to actively replace bronze ones. This is evidenced by the fact that iron was found everywhere, unlike tin or copper. Iron ore was located not only deep in the bowels of the earth, but also on its surface too.

Today, the ore found in the swamp is of no interest to the modern metal industry. However, in the ancient era, it meant a lot. Thus, the state, which had an income in the production of bronze, lost it in the production of metal. It is noteworthy that the countries that needed copper ore, with the advent of iron, rapidly overtook those kingdoms that were advanced in the Bronze Age.

It should be noted that during the excavations of the Scythian settlements, priceless relics of the beginning of the Iron Age were found.

Who are the Scythians? Simply put, these are Iranian-speaking nomads who moved through the territories of modern Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Siberia and southern Russia. Once upon a time Herodotus wrote about them.

Scythian relics in Russia

It is worth noting that these nomads grew grain. They brought it for export to Greek cities. Grain production was based on slave labor. Very often the bones of the dead slaves accompanied the burial of the Scythians. The tradition of killing slaves at the burial of the master is known in many countries. The Scythians did not ignore these customs. On the sites of their former settlements, archaeologists still find agricultural tools, including sickles. It should be noted that few arable implements were found. Perhaps they were wooden and did not have iron elements.

It is known that the Scythians knew how to process ferrous metal. They produced flat arrows, which consisted of spikes, bushings and other elements. The Scythians began to make tools and other household items of better quality than before. This indicates global changes not only in the life of these nomads, but also in other steppe ethnic groups.

Iron age. Kazakhstan

This period in the Kazakh steppes fell on the eighth-seventh centuries BC. This era coincided with the movement of agricultural and pastoral tribes from Mongolia to mobile forms of economy. They were based on the system of seasonal regulation of pastures, as well as water sources. These forms of pastoral farming in the steppe are called "nomadic" and "semi-nomadic farms" in science. New forms of cattle breeding laid the foundation for the development of the economy of the tribes that lived in the special conditions of the steppe ecosystem. The basis of this form of economy was formed in the Begazy-Dandybaev era.

Tasmalan culture

Nomads lived on the endless steppes of Kazakhstan. On these lands, history is presented in the form of burial mounds and burial grounds, which are considered priceless monuments of the Iron Age. In this region, burials with paintings are often found, which, according to archaeologists, served as lighthouses or compasses in the steppe.

Historians are interested in the Tasmolin culture, which was named after the area of ​​Pavlodar. The very first excavations were carried out in this area, where the skeletons of a man and a horse were found in large and small barrows. Scientists-Kazakhstanologists consider these mounds the most common relics of the Stone Age, Iron Age.

Cultural features of Northern Kazakhstan

This region differs from other regions of Kazakhstan in that farmers, that is, local residents, have switched to either a settled or nomadic way of life. The culture described above is also valued in these regions. Archaeological researchers are still attracted by the monuments of the Iron Age. A lot of research was carried out on the burial mounds of Birlik, Bekteniz, etc. The right bank of the Yesil River preserved the fortifications of this era.

Another "iron" turn in the history of mankind

Historians say that the 19th century is the Iron Age. The thing is that it went down in history as an era of revolutions and changes. The architecture is changing radically. At this time, concrete is being intensively introduced into the construction business. Railway tracks are laid everywhere. In other words, the age of the railroad began. Rails are laid en masse, connecting cities and countries. So there were ways in France, Germany, Belgium and Russia.

In 1837, railway workers connected St. Petersburg and Tsarskoye Selo. The length of these routes was 26.7 km. The railway began to actively expand in Russia in the 19th century. It was then that the domestic government thought about laying the tracks. Oddly enough, but the starting point for the development of this direction was the Department of Water Communications, which was created at the end of the 18th century by Paul the First.

The organization under the leadership of N. P. Rumyantsev acted more than successfully. The new institution was actively developed and expanded. On its base, created by Rumyantsev in 1809, the Military Institute of Communications was opened. After the victory in 1812, domestic engineers improved the communications system. It was this institute that produced modern and competent specialists for the construction and operation of domestic railways. Historians recorded the maximum point towards the end of the 19th century. This is the highest level of growth of the railway network. In just 10 years, the world length of the railway has increased by 245 thousand kilometers. Thus, the total length of the global network has become 617 thousand kilometers.

The first Russian train

As mentioned above, the flight "St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo", which departed in 1837 on October 30 at 12:30, became the debut in the domestic railway. A lot of artificial structures were built on this route, including bridges. The largest of them ran through the Obvodny Canal, the length of which was more than 25 meters.

In general, a huge number of bridges built from metal structures were built in the New Iron Age. 7 locomotives and various crews were purchased abroad. And a year later, namely in 1838, a domestic steam locomotive called "Agile" was designed at the Tsarskoye Selo Institute of Communications.

For 5 years, more than 2 million passengers have been transported on this route. At the same time, this road brought a profit to the treasury of about 360 thousand rubles. The significance of this railway lay in the fact that this experience of construction and operation proved the idea of ​​uninterrupted operation of this kind of transport in the climatic conditions of our homeland all year round.

The financial exploitation of the canvas also proved the profitability and expediency of a new method of delivering passengers and goods. It is worth noting that the first experience in the organization of railways in Russia gave a powerful impetus to the development and laying of railway tracks across the country.

Conclusion

If we return to the question of the Iron Age, we can trace its influence on the development of all mankind.

So, the era of metal is a part of history that stood out on the basis of data obtained by archaeologists, and is also characterized by the predominant predominance of objects made of iron, cast iron and steel at excavation sites.

It is generally accepted that this age replaced the Bronze Age. Its beginning in different areas and regions refers to different time periods. Markers of the beginning of the Iron Age are the regular production of weapons and tools, the spread of not only blacksmithing, but also ferrous metallurgy, as well as the widespread use of iron products.

The end of this era is attributed to the advent of the technological era, which is associated with the industrial revolution. And some historians extend it to the days of modern times.

The widespread introduction of this metal causes many opportunities for the production of a series of tools. This phenomenon is reflected in the improvement and spread of agriculture in forest areas or on soils that are difficult to cultivate.

Progress is observed in the construction business, as well as in crafts. The first tools appear in the form of saws, files and even articulated tools. Metal mining made it possible to manufacture wheeled vehicles. It was the latter that became the impetus for the expansion of trade.

Then coins appear. The processing of iron had a positive effect on military affairs. These facts in many regions contributed to the decomposition of the primitive system, as well as the formation of statehood.

Remember that the Iron Age is divided into early and late. This era is used in the study of primitive societies. On Chinese lands, progress in ferrous metallurgy proceeded separately. The production of bronze and casting among the Chinese was at the highest level. However, ore iron for them was known for a long time than in other countries. They were the first to produce cast iron, having noticed its fusibility. Masters produced many items not by forging, but by casting.

Successful metal processing centers were in the territories of the former USSR Transcaucasia, the Dnieper region, the Volga-Kama region. It is noteworthy that social inequality intensified in pre-class societies. This was a general description of the Iron Age, which represents the most significant changes in the history of mankind associated with the development of iron.

The Iron Age is an era in the primitive and early class history of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools.

The idea of ​​three ages, stone, bronze and iron, arose in the ancient world (Titus Lucretius Car).

Following bronze, a person masters a new metal - iron. The discovery of this metal of legend is attributed to the Asia Minor people of the Khalibs: from their name comes the Greek. Χάλυβας - "steel", "iron". Aristotle left a description of the Khalib method for producing iron: the Khalibs washed the river sand of their country several times, added some kind of refractory substance to it, and melted it in furnaces of a special design; the metal thus obtained had a silvery color and was stainless. As a raw material for iron smelting, magnetite sands were used, the reserves of which are found along the entire coast of the Black Sea - these magnetite sands consist of a mixture of small grains of magnetite, titanium-magnetite, ilmenite, and fragments of other rocks, so that the steel smelted by the Khalibs was alloyed, and, appears to be of high quality. Such a peculiar method of obtaining iron not from ore suggests that the Khalibs, rather, discovered iron as a technological material, but not as a method for its widespread industrial production. Apparently, their discovery served as an impetus for the further development of iron metallurgy, including from ore mined in mines. Clement of Alexandria in his encyclopedic work Stromata (ch. 21) mentions that, according to Greek legend, iron was discovered on Mount Ida - that was the name of the mountain range near Troy, opposite the island of Lesbos

The fact that iron was indeed discovered in the Hittites is confirmed both by the Greek name for the steel Χάλυβας, and by the fact that one of the first iron daggers was found in the tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen (c. 1350 BC), clearly presented to him by the Hittites, and that already in the Book of Judges of Israel (c. 1200 BC) the use of complete iron chariots by the Philistines and Canaanites is described. Later, iron technology gradually spread to other countries.

Bronze tools are more durable than iron tools, and their production does not require such a high temperature as iron smelting. Therefore, most experts believe that the transition from bronze to iron was not associated with the advantages of tools made of iron, but, first of all, with the fact that at the end of the Bronze Age mass production of bronze tools began, which very quickly led to the depletion of tin for the manufacture of bronze, which is much rarer in nature than copper.

Iron ores were more readily available. Bog ores are found almost everywhere. The vast expanses of the forest zone in the Bronze Age lagged behind the southern regions in socio-economic development, but after the start of iron smelting from local ores, agricultural equipment began to improve there, an iron plowshare appeared suitable for plowing heavy forest soils, and the inhabitants of the forest zone switched to agriculture. As a result, many forests in Western Europe disappeared during the Iron Age. But even in regions where agriculture arose earlier, the introduction of iron contributed to the improvement of irrigation systems and increased productivity of fields.

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The Early Iron Age is the archaeological era from which the use of objects made from iron ore begins. The earliest iron-making furnaces dating back to the 1st floor. II millennium BC found in western Georgia. In Eastern Europe and the Eurasian steppe and forest-steppe, the beginning of the era coincides with the time of the formation of early nomadic formations of the Scythian and Saka types (approximately VIII-VII centuries BC). In Africa, it began immediately after the Stone Age (there is no Bronze Age). In America, the beginning of the Iron Age is associated with European colonization. In Asia and Europe it began, almost simultaneously. Often, only the first stage of the Iron Age is called the early Iron Age, the boundary of which is the final stages of the era of the Great Migration of Peoples (IV-VI centuries AD). In general, the Iron Age includes the entire Middle Ages, and based on the definition, this era continues to this day. The term "Iron Age" is used by archaeologists to refer to the period of human history during which iron became a commonly used material for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Meteoritic iron was used in small quantities for a very long time - even in pre-dynastic Egypt - but the end of the Bronze Age in the economy became possible only with the development of iron ore smelting. At first, iron was probably accidentally smelted in kilns used to fire high-quality ceramics - and indeed, pieces of smelted iron have been found on sites in Syria and Iraq dating back to no later than 2700 BC. But only after twelve or thirteen centuries, blacksmiths learned to give the metal elasticity, alternating hot forging with water quenching. It can be said with almost complete certainty that this discovery was made in Eastern Anatolia, which is especially rich in iron ore. The Hittites kept it a secret for about two hundred years, but after the fall of their state ca. 1200 BC the technology has spread and bloomery iron has become a publicly available material. One of the oldest finds, indicating the use of iron for the manufacture of tools for everyday use, was made in Gerar near Gaza (Palestine), where in a layer dating back to ca. 1200 BC, smelters were excavated and iron hoes, sickles and openers were found. Iron processing spread throughout Asia Minor, and from there to Greece, Italy and the rest of Europe, but in each of these regions the transition from the former way of life based on bronze processing took place in different ways. In Egypt, this process extended almost to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods, while outside those areas of the ancient world where bronze was widely used, the iron craft was established relatively quickly. From Egypt, it gradually spread over almost the entire African continent, and in most areas directly replaced the Stone Age; in Australia and Oceania, as well as in the New World, the practice of iron smelting penetrated with the discovery of these regions by Europeans. Early iron products were made only from bloomery iron, since the casting of this metal was not widely used until the introduction in the 14th century. forges with bellows driven by water. However, the development of bloomery iron also brought to life a number of technical innovations - for example, articulated tongs, lathes and planers, a mill with rotating millstones - the introduction of which, by facilitating the clearing of forested lands and providing a leap in the development of agriculture, laid the foundations of modern civilization.

period in the development of mankind, which came in connection with the manufacture and use of iron tools and weapons. Replaced the Bronze Age at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The use of iron contributed to a significant increase in production and the collapse of the primitive communal system.

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IRON AGE

an era in the primitive and early class history of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron. guns. The idea of ​​three ages: stone, bronze and iron - arose in the ancient world (Titus Lucretius Car). The term "F. in." was put into use ca. ser. 19th century Danish archaeologist K. Yu. Thomsen. The most important research classification and dating of monuments Zh. in Zap. Europe produced by M. Gernes, O. Montelius, O. Tischler, M. Reinecke, J. Deshelet, N. Oberg, J. L. Pich and J. Kostszewski; in Vost. Europe - V. A. Gorodtsov, A. A. Spitsyn, Yu. V. Gotye, P. N. Tretyakov, A. P. Smirnov, X. A. Moora, M. I. Artamonov, B. N. Grakov and others; in Siberia, by S. A. Teploukhov, S. V. Kiselev, S. I. Rudenko, and others; in the Caucasus - B. A. Kuftin, B. B. Piotrovsky, E. I. Krupnov and others. the spread of industries outlived all countries at different times, but by Zh. usually include only the culture of primitive tribes that lived outside the territories of the ancient slave owners. civilizations that arose in the Eneolithic and Bronze Ages (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, India, China). J. c. compared with previous archaeological epochs (Kam. and Bronze Ages) is very short. His chronological borders: from 9th-7th centuries. BC e., when many primitive tribes of Europe and Asia developed their own iron metallurgy, and until the time when these tribes had a class society and a state. Some modern foreign scientists who consider the time of the appearance of letters to be the end of primitive history. sources, carry the end Zh. Zap. Europe by the 1st c. BC e., when Rome appears. letters. sources containing information about Western Europe. tribes. Since iron remains the most important material to this day, tools are made from it, modern. the era is included in the Zh. v., therefore, for the archaeological. periodization of primitive history, the term "early life" is also used. On the territory Zap. Europe by early Zh. only its beginning is called (the so-called Hallstatt culture). Despite the fact that iron is the most common metal in the world, it was mastered by man late, since it is almost never found in nature in its pure form, it is difficult to process and its ores are difficult to distinguish from various minerals. Initially, meteoric iron became known to mankind. Small objects made of iron (main arr. decorations) are found in the 1st half. 3rd millennium BC e. in Egypt, Mesopotamia and M. Asia. A method for obtaining iron from ore was discovered in the 2nd millennium BC. e. According to one of the most probable assumptions, the cheese-making process (see below) was first used by tribes subordinate to the Hittites living in the mountains of Armenia (Antitaur) in the 15th century. BC e. However, it is still long. For a long time, iron remained an uncommon and very valuable metal. Only after the 11th c. BC e. a fairly wide production of zhel began. weapons and tools in Palestine, Syria, M. Asia, and India. At the same time iron becomes known in the south of Europe. In the 11th-10th centuries. BC e. otd. wish. objects penetrate into the area lying to the north of the Alps, are found in the steppes of southern Europe. parts of the USSR, but yellow. tools begin to dominate in these areas only in the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. In the 8th c. BC e. wish. products are widely distributed in Mesopotamia, Iran, and somewhat later in Wed. Asia. The first news about iron in China dates back to the 8th century. BC e., but it spreads only in the 5th c. BC e. In Indochina and Indonesia, iron spread at the turn of our era. Apparently, from ancient times iron metallurgy was known to various African tribes. Undoubtedly, already in the 6th c. BC e. iron was produced in Nubia, Sudan, Libya. In the 2nd century BC e. J. c. stepped into the center. region Africa. Some Afr. tribes moved from Kam. century to the iron, bypassing the bronze. In America, Australia and most of the Pacific Islands, approx. iron (except meteoric) became known only in the 2nd millennium AD. e. with the arrival of Europeans in these areas. In contrast to the relatively rare sources of copper mining and especially tin, iron. ores, however, most often low-grade (brown iron ore, lacustrine, swamp, meadow, etc.), are found almost everywhere. But getting iron from ores is much more difficult than copper. The melting of iron, i.e., obtaining it in a liquid state, has always been inaccessible to ancient metallurgists, since this requires a very high temperature (1528 °). Iron was obtained in a pasty state using a cheese-making process, which consisted in the reduction of iron. ores with carbon at a temperature of 1100-1350 ° in spec. furnaces with air blowing by bellows through a nozzle. At the bottom of the furnace, a kritz was formed - a lump of porous dough-like iron weighing 1-8 kg, which had to be repeatedly forged with a hammer to compact and partially remove (squeeze out) slag from it. Flash iron is soft, but even in ancient times (c. 12 century BC) a method for hardening iron was discovered. products (by immersing them in cold water) and carburizing (carburization). Ready for blacksmith crafts and intended for bargaining. iron bars were usually exchanged in Western Asia and Western. Europe bipyramidal shape. Higher mechanical the quality of iron, as well as the general availability of iron. ores and the cheapness of the new metal ensured the displacement of bronze by iron, as well as stone, which remained an important material for the production of tools and in bronze. century. It didn't happen right away. In Europe, only in the 2nd floor. 1st millennium BC e. iron began to play really creatures. role as a material for making tools. Techn. The upheaval caused by the spread of iron greatly expanded man's power over nature. It made possible the clearing of large forest areas for crops, the expansion and improvement of irrigation systems. and meliorative constructions and improvement in general of cultivation of the earth. The development of crafts, especially blacksmithing and weapons, is accelerating. Wood processing is being improved for the purposes of house-building, the production of vehicles (ships, chariots, etc.), and the manufacture of various utensils. Artisans, from shoemakers and masons to miners, also received better tools. By the beginning of our era, all basic. types of crafts. and s.-x. hand tools (except for screws and articulated scissors) used in cf. century, and partly in modern times, were already in use. The construction of roads was facilitated, the military was improved. technology, exchange expanded, spread as a means of circulation of metal. coin. Development produces. forces associated with the spread of iron, over time led to the transformation of the entire society. life. As a result of growth produces. labor increased surplus product, which, in turn, served as an economical. a prerequisite for the emergence of the exploitation of man by man, the collapse of the tribal system. One of the sources of accumulation of values ​​and growth of property. inequality was expanding in the era of Zh. exchange. The possibility of enrichment through exploitation gave rise to wars for the purpose of robbery and enslavement. For the beginning J. c. characterized by a wide distribution of fortifications. In the era of Zh. the tribes of Europe and Asia were going through the stage of decomposition of the primitive communal system, were on the eve of the emergence of the class. society and state-va. The transition of part of the means of production to the private property of the ruling minority, the emergence of slavery, the increased stratification of society and the separation of the tribal aristocracy from the main. the masses of the population are already traits typical of the early classes. societies. Many tribes have societies. the device of this transitional period took political. the form of the so-called. military democracy. J. c. on the territory of the USSR. On the territory USSR, iron first appeared in con. 2nd millennium BC e. In Transcaucasia (Samtavr burial ground) and in the south of Europe. parts of the USSR (monuments of the Srubnaya culture). The development of iron in Racha (West Georgia) dates back to ancient times. The Mossinois and Khalibs, who lived next to the Colchians, were famous as metallurgists. However, the widespread use of iron metallurgy in the territory. The USSR belongs already to the 1st millennium BC. e. In Transcaucasia, a number of archaeological cultures of the late Bronze Age, the heyday of which belongs to the early Zh. culture with local centers in Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, Kyzyl-Vank culture (see Kyzyl-Vank), Colchis culture, Urartian culture. On Sev. Caucasus: Koban culture, Kayakent-Khorochoev culture and Kuban culture. In the steppes of the North. Black Sea region in the 7th century. BC e. - the first centuries A.D. e. inhabited by the Scythian tribes, who created the most developed culture of the early Zh. century. on the territory THE USSR. Wish. items were found in abundance in the settlements and mounds of the Scythian period. Signs of metallurgical products were discovered during excavations of a number of Scythian settlements. The largest amount of iron residues. and blacksmith trades was found at the Kamensky settlement (5-3 centuries BC) near Nikopol, which was, apparently, the center of specialists. metallurgical district of ancient Scythia. Wish. tools contributed to the widespread development of various crafts and the spread of plowed agriculture among the local tribes of the Scythian time. The next after the Scythian period of the early Zh. in the steppes of the Black Sea region, it is represented by the Sarmatian culture, which dominated here from the 2nd century BC. BC e. up to 4 c. n. e. In the previous period from the 6th c. BC e. Sarmatians (or Savromats) lived between the Don and the Urals. By the 3rd c. n. e. one of the Sarmatian tribes - the Alans - began to play means. historical the role and gradually the very name of the Sarmatians was supplanted by the name of the Alans. By the same time, when the Sarmatian tribes dominated the North. Black Sea coast, include spread in the west. areas of the North. Black Sea region, Upper. and Wed. The Dnieper and Transnistria cultures of the "burial fields" (Milograd culture, Zarubinets culture, Chernyakhov culture, etc.). These crops belonged to farmers. tribes, among which, according to some scientists, were the ancestors of the Slavs. Living in the center. and sowing forest areas of Europe. part of the USSR, the tribes were familiar with iron metallurgy from the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. In the 8-3 centuries. BC e. in the Kama region, the Ananyino culture was widespread, which is characterized by the coexistence of bronzes. and wished guns, with the undoubted superiority of the latter at the end of it. The Ananyino culture on the Kama was replaced by the Pianobor culture, which dates back to the 3rd century BC. BC e. - 5 in. n. e. To Top. the Volga region and in the regions of the Volga-Oka interfluve to Zh. include settlements of the Dyakovo culture (middle of the 1st millennium BC - middle of the 1st millennium AD), and on the territory. to the south from the middle course of the Oka and to the west from the Volga, in the basin. pp. Tsny and Mokshi, settlements of the Gorodets culture (7th century BC - 5th century AD), belonging to the ancient Finno-Ugric tribes. In the area of ​​the top. The Dnieper region is known for numerous settlements of the 6th c. BC e. - 7th c. n. e., which belonged to the ancient East Baltic tribes, later absorbed by the Slavs. Settlements of the same tribes are known in the southeast. Baltic, where along with them there are also the remains of a culture that belonged to the ancestors of the ancient Estonians. (Chudian) tribes. In Yuzh. Siberia and Altai, due to the abundance of copper and tin, developed bronze. an industry that has long successfully competed with iron. Although wished. products, apparently, appeared already in the early Mayemir time (Altai; 7th century BC), iron is widely distributed only in the middle. 1st millennium BC e. (Tagar culture on the Yenisei, Pazyryk culture (see Pazyryk) in Altai, etc.). Cultures Zh. v. are also represented in other parts of Siberia (in Western Siberia, studies by V. N. Chernetsov and others; in the Far East, studies by A. P. Okladnikov and others). On the territory Wed Asia and Kazakhstan until the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. tools and weapons were also made of bronze. The appearance of iron products as in agriculture. oases, and in the pastoral steppe can be attributed to the 7-6 centuries. BC e. Throughout the 1st millennium BC. e. and 1st floor. 1st millennium AD e. steppes Wed. Asia and Kazakhstan were inhabited by numerous. Sako-Massageta tribes, in the culture of which iron became widespread from the middle. 1st millennium BC e., although bronze products continued to exist with them for a long time. In the agricultural oases, the time of the appearance of iron coincides with the emergence of the first slave owners. state-in (Bactria, Khorezm). On the territory North of Europe. parts of the USSR, in the taiga and tundra regions of Siberia, iron appears in the first centuries AD. e. J. c. in the territory of the Zap. Europe is usually divided into 2 periods - Hallstatt (900-400 BC), which is also called. early, or first, Zh. v., and La Tene (400 BC - early AD), to-ry called. late, or second. Hallstatt culture was common in the territory of modern. Austria, Yugoslavia, partly Czechoslovakia, where it was created by the ancient Illyrians, and on the territory. South Germany and the Rhine departments of France, where the tribes of the Celts lived. The cultures of the Thracian tribes in the east belong to the era of the Hallstatt culture. parts of the Balkan Peninsula; cultures of the Etruscan, Ligurian, Italic, and other tribes on the Apennine Peninsula; cultures of the early Zh. century. Iberian Peninsula (Iberians, Turdetans, Lusitans, etc.) and the late Lusatian culture in the basins pp. Oder and Vistula. The early Hallstatt era is characterized by the coexistence of bronzes. and wished tools and weapons and the gradual displacement of bronze. In the household In respect this era is characterized by the growth of agriculture, in the social - the collapse of tribal relations. All in. Germany, Scandinavia, Zap. France and England at that time still had a Bronze Age. From the beginning 4th c. the La Tene culture is spreading, characterized by a genuine flourishing of the railway. industry. La Tene culture existed before the conquest of Gaul by the Romans (1st century BC). The area of ​​distribution of the La Tene culture - land to the west from the Rhine to the Atlantic. ocean, along the middle course of the Danube and north of it. La Tene culture is associated with the tribes of the Celts, to-rye had large fortifications. cities, which were the centers of tribes and places of concentration of various crafts. In this era, the Celts gradually created a class. slave owner society. Bronze. tools are no longer found, but iron is most widespread in Europe during the period of Rome. conquests. At the beginning of our era, in the areas conquered by Rome, the La Tene culture was replaced by the so-called. provincial rome. culture. Iron spread to the north of Europe almost 300 years later than to the south. By the end of the Zh. belongs to the German culture. tribes that lived in the territory between the Northern m. and pp. Rhine, Danube and Elbe, as well as in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and the culture of the West. Slavs, called the Przeworsk culture (3-2 centuries BC - 4-5 centuries AD). It is believed that the Przeworsk tribes were known to ancient authors under the name of the Wends. All in. countries, the complete dominance of iron came only at the beginning of our era. Lit .: Engels F., Origin of the family, private property and the state, M., 1953; Artsikhovsky A. V., Introduction to archeology, 3rd ed., M., 1947; World History, vol. 1-2, M., 1955-56; Gernes M., Culture of the prehistoric past, trans. from German, part 3, M., 1914; Gorodtsov V. A., Household archeology, M., 1910; Gotye Yu. V., Iron Age in Eastern Europe, M.-L., 1930; Grakov BN, The oldest finds of iron things in the European part of the USSR, "CA", 1958, No 4; Jessen A. A., On the issue of monuments of the VIII - VII centuries. BC e. in the South of the European part of the USSR, in: "CA" (vol.) 18, M., 1953; Kiselev S.V., Ancient history of Yu. Siberia, (2nd ed.), M., 1951; Clark D. G. D., Prehistoric Europe. Economical essay, trans. from English, M., 1953; Krupnov E.I., Ancient history of the North Caucasus, M., 1960; Lyapushkin I.I., Monuments of the Saltovo-Mayatsky culture in the basin of the river. Don, "MIA", 1958, No 62; its own, the Dnieper forest-steppe left bank in the Iron Age, MIA, 1961, No. 104; Mongait A. L., Archeology in the USSR, M., 1955; Niederle L., Slavic Antiquities, trans. from Czech., M., 1956; Okladnikov A.P., The distant past of Primorye, Vladivostok, 1959; Essays on the history of the USSR. Primitive communal system and the most ancient states on the territory of the USSR, M., 1956; Monuments of Zarubinets culture, "MIA", 1959, No 70; Piotrovsky B. V., Archeology of Transcaucasia from ancient times to 1 thousand BC. e., L., 1949; his own, Kingdom of Van, M., 1959; Rudenko S. I., Culture of the population of the Central Altai in the Scythian time, M.-L., 1960; Smirnov A.P., Iron Age of the Chuvash Volga Region, M., 1961; Tretyakov P. N., East Slavic tribes, 2nd ed., M., 1953; Chernetsov V.N., Lower Ob region in 1000 AD e., "MIA", 1957, No 58; D?chelette J., Manuel d´arch?ologie prehistorique celtique et gallo-romaine, 2 ed., t. 3-4, P., 1927; Johannsen O., Geschichte des Eisens, Dösseldorf, 1953; Moora H., Die Eisenzeit in Lettland bis etwa 500 n. Chr., (t.) 1-2, Tartu (Dorpat), 1929-38; Redlich A., Die Minerale im Dienste der Menschheit, Bd 3 - Das Eisen, Prag, 1925; Rickard, T. A., Man and metals, v. 1-2, N. Y.-L., 1932. A. L. Mongait. Moscow.

iron age

an era in the primitive and early class history of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. The idea of ​​three centuries: stone, bronze and iron - arose in the ancient world (Titus Lucretius Car). The term "J. V." was introduced into science around the middle of the 19th century. Danish archaeologist K. Yu. Thomsen om. The most important studies, the initial classification and dating of the monuments of Zh. in Western Europe they were made by the Austrian scientist M. Görnes, Swedish - O. Montelius and O. Oberg, German - O. Tischler and P. Reinecke, French - J. Deshelet, Czech - I. Pich and Polish - J. Kostshevsky; in Eastern Europe - Russian and Soviet scientists V. A. Gorodtsov, A. A. Spitsyn, Yu. V. Gotye, P. N. Tretyakov, A. P. Smirnov, H. A. Moora, M. I. Artamonov, B. N. Grakov and others; in Siberia, by S. A. Teploukhov, S. V. Kiselev, S. I. Rudenko, and others; in the Caucasus, by B. A. Kuftin, A. A. Jessen, B. B. Piotrovsky, E. I. Krupnov, and others; in Central Asia - S. P. Tolstov, A. N. Bernshtam, A. I. Terenozhkin and others.

The period of the initial spread of the iron industry was experienced by all countries at different times, but by the Zh. Usually, only the cultures of primitive tribes that lived outside the territories of ancient slave-owning civilizations that arose in the Eneolithic and Bronze Ages (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, India, China, etc.) are usually attributed. J. c. compared with previous archaeological epochs (Stone and Bronze Ages) is very short. Its chronological boundaries: from the 9th-7th centuries. BC e., when many primitive tribes of Europe and Asia developed their own iron metallurgy, and until the time when a class society and state arose among these tribes. Some modern foreign scholars, who consider the time of the appearance of written sources to be the end of primitive history, attribute the end of the Zh. Western Europe to the 1st century. BC e., when Roman written sources appear containing information about Western European tribes. Since iron still remains the most important metal from whose alloys tools are made, the term “early iron age” is also used for the archaeological periodization of primitive history. On the territory of Western Europe, early Zh. only its beginning is called (the so-called Hallstatt culture). Initially, meteoric iron became known to mankind. Separate items made of iron (mainly jewelry) 1st half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. found in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. A method for obtaining iron from ore was discovered in the 2nd millennium BC. e. According to one of the most probable assumptions, the cheese-making process (see below) was first used by the tribes subordinate to the Hittites living in the mountains of Armenia (Antitaur) in the 15th century. BC e. However, for a long time, iron remained a rare and very valuable metal. Only after the 11th c. BC e. rather extensive production of iron weapons and tools began in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, and India. At the same time iron becomes known in the south of Europe. In the 11th-10th centuries. BC e. individual iron objects penetrate into the region north of the Alps and are found in the steppes of the south of the European part of the modern territory of the USSR, but iron tools begin to predominate in these regions only from the 8th to 7th centuries. BC e. In the 8th c. BC e. iron products are widely distributed in Mesopotamia, Iran and somewhat later in Central Asia. The first news about iron in China dates back to the 8th century. BC e., but it spreads only from the 5th c. BC e. In Indochina and Indonesia, iron prevails at the turn of our era. Apparently, from ancient times iron metallurgy was known to various African tribes. Undoubtedly, already in the 6th c. BC e. iron was produced in Nubia, Sudan, Libya. In the 2nd century BC e. J. c. arrived in central Africa. Some African tribes moved from the Stone Age to the Iron Age, bypassing the Bronze Age. In America, Australia, and most of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, iron (except meteoric iron) became known only in the 16th and 17th centuries. n. e. with the advent of Europeans in these areas.

In contrast to the relatively rare deposits of copper and especially tin, iron ores, however, most often low-grade (brown iron ore) are found almost everywhere. But getting iron from ores is much more difficult than copper. The smelting of iron was beyond the reach of ancient metallurgists. Iron was obtained in a pasty state using a cheese-blowing process (See Cheese-blowing process) , which consisted in the reduction of iron ore at a temperature of about 900-1350 ° C in special furnaces - forges with air blowing with bellows through a nozzle. At the bottom of the furnace, a cry was formed - a lump of porous iron weighing 1-5 kg, which had to be forged for compaction, as well as removal of slag from it. Raw iron is a very soft metal; tools and weapons made of pure iron had low mechanical qualities. Only with the discovery in the 9th-7th centuries. BC e. methods of manufacturing steel from iron and its heat treatment, the wide distribution of the new material begins. The higher mechanical qualities of iron and steel, as well as the general availability of iron ores and the cheapness of the new metal, ensured the displacement of bronze, as well as stone, which remained an important material for the production of tools in the Bronze Age. It didn't happen right away. In Europe, only in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC. e. iron and steel began to play a really significant role as a material for the manufacture of tools and weapons. The technical revolution caused by the spread of iron and steel greatly expanded man's power over nature: it became possible to clear large forest areas for crops, expand and improve irrigation and reclamation facilities, and improve land cultivation in general. The development of crafts, especially blacksmithing and weapons, is accelerating. Wood processing is being improved for the purposes of house-building, the production of vehicles (ships, chariots, etc.), and the manufacture of various utensils. Artisans, from shoemakers and masons to miners, also received better tools. By the beginning of our era, all the main types of handicraft and agricultural. hand tools (except for screws and articulated scissors), used in the Middle Ages, and partly in modern times, were already in use. The construction of roads was facilitated, military equipment was improved, exchange expanded, and the metal coin spread as a means of circulation.

The development of productive forces associated with the spread of iron, over time, led to the transformation of the entire social life. As a result of the growth of labor productivity, the surplus product increased, which, in turn, served as an economic prerequisite for the emergence of the exploitation of man by man, the collapse of the tribal primitive communal system. One of the sources of the accumulation of values ​​and the growth of property inequality was the expanding in the era of Zh. century. exchange. The possibility of enrichment through exploitation gave rise to wars for the purpose of robbery and enslavement. At the beginning of the Zh. fortifications spread widely. In the era of Zh. the tribes of Europe and Asia were going through the stage of disintegration of the primitive communal system, were on the eve of the emergence of a class society and state. The transition of certain means of production into the private ownership of the ruling minority, the emergence of slave ownership, the increased stratification of society, and the separation of the tribal aristocracy from the bulk of the population are already features typical of early class societies. For many tribes, the social structure of this transitional period took the political form of the so-called. military democracy (See military democracy).

J. c. on the territory of the USSR. On the modern territory of the USSR, iron first appeared at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. in Transcaucasia (Samtavr burial ground) and in the south of the European part of the USSR. The development of iron in Racha (Western Georgia) dates back to ancient times. The Mossinois and Khalibs, who lived next to the Colchians, were famous as metallurgists. However, the widespread use of iron metallurgy on the territory of the USSR dates back to the 1st millennium BC. e. In Transcaucasia, a number of archaeological cultures of the late Bronze Age are known, the flowering of which dates back to the early Zh. century: the Central Transcaucasian culture with local centers in Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, the Kyzyl-Vank culture (see Kyzyl-Vank), Colchis culture , Urartian culture (see Urartu). In the North Caucasus: Koban culture, Kayakent-Khorochoev culture and Kuban culture. In the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region in the 7th century. BC e. - the first centuries A.D. e. inhabited by the Scythian tribes, who created the most developed culture of the early Zh. century. on the territory of the USSR. Iron products were found in abundance in the settlements and mounds of the Scythian period. Signs of metallurgical production were found during excavations of a number of Scythian settlements. The largest number of remnants of iron-working and blacksmithing was found at the Kamenskoye settlement (5-3 centuries BC) near Nikopol, which was apparently the center of a specialized metallurgical region of ancient Scythia (see Scythians). Iron tools contributed to the wide development of various crafts and the spread of plowed agriculture among the local tribes of the Scythian time. The next after the Scythian period of the early Zh. in the steppes of the Black Sea region, it is represented by the Sarmatian culture (see Sarmatians), which dominated here from the 2nd century. BC e. up to 4 c. n. e. In the previous period from the 7th c. BC e. Sarmatians (or Savromats) lived between the Don and the Urals. In the first centuries A.D. e. one of the Sarmatian tribes - Alans - began to play a significant historical role and gradually the very name of the Sarmatians was supplanted by the name of the Alans. By the same time, when the Sarmatian tribes dominated the Northern Black Sea region, the cultures of the “burial fields” (Zarubinetskaya culture, Chernyakhovskaya culture, etc.) that spread in the western regions of the Northern Black Sea region, the Upper and Middle Dnieper and Transnistria belong to. These cultures belonged to agricultural tribes who knew the metallurgy of iron, among which, according to some scientists, were the ancestors of the Slavs. The tribes living in the central and northern forest regions of the European part of the USSR were familiar with iron metallurgy from the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. In the 8-3 centuries. BC e. in the Kama region, the Ananya culture was widespread, which is characterized by the coexistence of bronze and iron tools, with the undoubted superiority of the latter at the end of it. The Ananyino culture on the Kama was replaced by the Pyanobor culture (late 1st millennium BC - 1st half of the 1st millennium AD).

In the Upper Volga region and in the regions of the Volga-Oka interfluve to Zh. century. include settlements of the Dyakovo culture (see Dyakovo culture) (mid-1st millennium BC–mid-1st millennium AD), and on the territory to the south of the middle reaches of the Oka, to the west of Volga, in the basin of the river. Tsna and Moksha are settlements of the Gorodets culture (See. Gorodetskaya culture) (7th century BC - 5th century AD), which belonged to the ancient Finno-Ugric tribes. Numerous settlements of the 6th century BC are known in the region of the Upper Dnieper. BC e. - 7th c. n. e., which belonged to the ancient East Baltic tribes, later absorbed by the Slavs. The settlements of the same tribes are known in the southeastern Baltic, where, along with them, there are also the remains of a culture that belonged to the ancestors of the ancient Estonian (Chud) tribes.

In Southern Siberia and Altai, due to the abundance of copper and tin, the bronze industry developed strongly, successfully competing with iron for a long time. Although iron products, apparently, appeared already in the early Mayemir time (Altai; 7th century BC), iron was widely distributed only in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. (Tagar culture on the Yenisei, Pazyryk barrows in Altai, etc.). Cultures Zh. v. are also represented in other parts of Siberia and the Far East. On the territory of Central Asia and Kazakhstan until the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. tools and weapons were also made of bronze. The appearance of iron products both in agricultural oases and in the cattle-breeding steppe can be attributed to the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. Throughout the 1st millennium BC. e. and in the 1st half of the 1st millennium AD. e. the steppes of Central Asia and Kazakhstan were inhabited by numerous Sako-Usun tribes, in whose culture iron became widespread from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. In the agricultural oases, the time of the appearance of iron coincides with the emergence of the first slave-owning states (Bactria, Sogd, Khorezm).

J. c. on the territory of Western Europe, it is usually divided into 2 periods - the Hallstatt (900-400 BC), which was also called the early, or first Zh. v., and La Tene (400 BC - the beginning of AD) , which is called late, or second. The Hallstatt culture was spread on the territory of modern Austria, Yugoslavia, Northern Italy, partly Czechoslovakia, where it was created by the ancient Illyrians, and on the territory of modern Germany and the Rhine departments of France, where the Celtic tribes lived. The cultures close to the Hallstatt belong to this time: the Thracian tribes in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula, the Etruscan, Ligurian, Italic, and other tribes on the Apennine Peninsula; the cultures of the early Zh. century. Iberian Peninsula (Iberians, Turdetans, Lusitans, etc.) and the late Lusatian culture in the basins of the river. Oder and Vistula. The early Hallstatt period is characterized by the coexistence of bronze and iron tools and weapons and the gradual displacement of bronze. Economically, this era is characterized by the growth of agriculture, socially - by the collapse of tribal relations. The Bronze Age still existed at that time in the north of present-day East Germany and West Germany, in Scandinavia, Western France, and England. From the beginning of the 5th c. the La Tène culture is spreading, characterized by a genuine flourishing of the iron industry. The La Tène culture existed before the conquest of Gaul by the Romans (1st century BC), the area of ​​distribution of the La Tène culture - the land to the west from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean along the middle reaches of the Danube and to the north from it. La Tène culture is associated with the tribes of the Celts, who had large fortified cities, which were the centers of tribes and places of concentration of various crafts. In this era, the Celts gradually created a class slave society. Bronze tools are no longer found, but iron was most widespread in Europe during the period of the Roman conquests. At the beginning of our era, in the areas conquered by Rome, the La Tene culture was replaced by the so-called. provincial Roman culture. Iron spread to the north of Europe almost 300 years later than to the south. By the end of the Zh. refers to the culture of the Germanic tribes that lived in the territory between the North Sea and the river. Rhine, Danube and Elbe, as well as in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and archaeological cultures, the carriers of which are considered the ancestors of the Slavs. In the northern countries, the complete dominance of iron came only at the beginning of our era.

Lit.: F. Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 21; Avdusin D. A., Archeology of the USSR, [M.], 1967; Artsikhovsky A. V., Introduction to archeology, 3rd ed., M., 1947; World History, vol. 1-2, M., 1955-56; Gotye Yu. V., Iron Age in Eastern Europe, M. - L., 1930; Grakov B.N., The oldest finds of iron things in the European part of the USSR, "Soviet archeology", 1958, No. 4; Zagorulsky E. M., Archeology of Belarus, Minsk, 1965; History of the USSR from ancient times to the present day, vol. 1, M., 1966; Kiselev S.V., Ancient history of Southern Siberia, Moscow, 1951; Clark D. G. D., Prehistoric Europe. Economic essay, trans. from English, M., 1953; Krupnov E.I., Ancient history of the North Caucasus, M., 1960; Mongait A. L., Archeology in the USSR, M., 1955; Niederle L., Slavic Antiquities, trans. from Czech., M., 1956; Piotrovsky B. B., Archeology of Transcaucasia from ancient times to 1 thousand BC. e., L., 1949; Tolstov S. P., According to the ancient deltas of the Oks and Yaksart, M., 1962; Shovkoplyas I. G., Archaeological records in Ukraine (1917-1957), K., 1957; Aitchison L., A history of metals, t. 1-2, L., 1960; CLark G., World prehistory, Camb., 1961; Forbes R.J., Studies in ancient technology, v. 8, Leiden, 1964; Johannsen O., Geschichte des Eisens, Düsseldorf, 1953; Laet S. J. de, La prehistoire de l'Europe, P. - Brux., 1967; Moora H., Die Eisenzeit in Lettland bis etwa 500 n. Chr., 1-2, Tartu (Dorpat), 1929-38; Piggott S., Ancient Europe, Edinburgh, 1965; Pleiner R., Staré europské kovářství, Praha, 1962; Tulecote R. F., Metallurgy in archaeology, L., 1962.

L. L. Mongait.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

See what the "Iron Age" is in other dictionaries:

IRON AGE, a period in the development of mankind associated with the development of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. Replaced the Bronze Age, and in some regions the Stone Age. In the North Caucasus, iron tools were created from the 9th to 6th centuries. BC e. under ... ... Russian history

IRON AGE, a historical period that began with the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools and weapons. Replaced the Bronze Age at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC ... Modern Encyclopedia

The period in the development of mankind, which began with the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools and weapons. Replaced the Bronze Age mainly in the beginning. 1st millennium BC e. The use of iron gave a powerful impetus to the development of production and ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

The historical period that began with the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools and weapons. Replaced the Bronze Age at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC ... Historical dictionary

English age of iron; German Eisenzeitalter. According to the archaeological classification, the period that replaced the Bronze Age. J. c. characterized by the manufacture of the main tools of production and weapons from iron, which played a revolutionary role in history; ... ... Encyclopedia of Sociology

The period in the development of mankind, which began with the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools and weapons. Replaced the Bronze Age mainly at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The use of iron gave a powerful impetus to the development of production and themes ... ... Encyclopedia of cultural studies