Class ranks of the Russian Empire. System of military ranks in the Russian Imperial Army

The topic of nobility and belonging to this category of residents in the Russian Empire has always been considered one of the most important in society and at the legislative level. For many years, it was the nobility that provided the support for power and was considered the social elite, and therefore a lot of attention was paid to status. The nobility has always been regulated, but for the first time in the Russian Empire the issue was raised by Peter I. By force of law, he decided to streamline relationships in different spheres of life. The ruler issued a Table of Ranks.

In contact with

Classmates

How the table of ranks was created (briefly)

Since Peter the Great was inspired by the idea of ​​creation, he took part in its formation. Similar documents from the world's leading powers were taken as a basis: Denmark, Sweden, France, Prussia. After studying them, the commission created a draft signed by the Emperor.

Peter himself edited the draft, and then handed it over to the Admiralty and Military Collegiums together with the Senate. However, even after the edits, the document was not immediately accepted.

In 1722, the Emperor finally approved the table. Civil ranks were divided into three groups:

• military;
• civilian;
• courtiers.

All of them are included in 14 classes and represented 263 positions. Later, some of them were abolished, and towards the end of the 18th century they completely disappeared.

The Table of Ranks is a detailed description of civilian ranks. At first it was a table describing and dividing positions according to classes . Then came the description salaries, the nature of the assignment of the title and its inheritance. The characteristics of the Table of Ranks even describe the rules for addressing officials.

Possession of hereditary nobility of the 14th class provided the right to receive hereditary nobility, acquired in the civil service with the presence of the eighth class, and the 14th (collegiate registrar) class provided the right to nobility of the bearer.

According to the Manifesto published in 1845, hereditary nobility was awarded along with the assignment of the eighth class. Everyone who was born before receiving the nobility had a separate category - officer's children. It was customary to call them chief officer's children. At the request of the father, one of the children was granted a rank.

In the table, the ranks were not simply described, but compared with each other. The state councilor for rights was equal to a brigadier or captain-commander in military service. The remaining ranks were described similarly, but the military always outnumbered the civilians. At the same time, a military person climbed the career ladder faster.

In the future, the report card about ranks has undergone changes. In 1856, Ruler Alexander II limited the right to receive nobility to the rank of colonel at the 6th class, and civilians to the 4th class.

As you can see, the Table of Ranks constantly underwent changes in the Russian Empire. A number of civil ranks were separated, regardless of the duties of the representatives.

What names were eliminated?

After the establishment of the document, titles such as collegiate secretary, assessor, adviser and state councilor initially meant positions performed by council members. They had the casting vote. The chairman of the court court was called court councilor.

All listed positions abolished in 1726, but the names of the titles remained until 1917. The famous Table of Ranks and its importance for employees cannot be overestimated, since it allowed people from the lower classes to become nobility if they had talent.

Principles of separation of ranks

The titles were divided into:

• staff officers;
• chief officers;
• general's

The first two categories related to the highest generals were separately distinguished. They were treated differently.

The first five classes of ranks were separately distinguished, since these categories were not classified as either officers or generals. You should address such people: “Your Highness.”

Accepted ranks were given strictly to men, and their wives entered into the rank of their husbands. Unmarried girls held a rank one below their father. There was also such a rule: for demanding honors and a place above one’s rank at an official meeting and public celebration, a fine was imposed (2 months’ salary of this person), while 2/3 of it was given to the informer. A similar punishment was for one who lost rank to a person of lower class.

The ranks preferred by Peter

Since the Ruler of the Russian Empire preferred the military, he did not want to establish first class ranks for civilians. However, after Osterman's persuasion to maintain diplomatic prestige, the rank of chancellor was equated to first class. Rank of Privy Councilor the first class was created subsequently.

Among Peter’s other preferences, one can highlight the fact that in the army, along with the rank of 14th class, nobility was appointed, and in civilian service only with the rank of assessor. Since 1856, to obtain the same rank it was required to have the rank of general (state councilor). The low rank of the president of the state college, who by European standards is considered a minister, is considered quite indicative. Later, ministers of the Russian Empire were given the rank of secret and actual privy councilor.

How the document influenced society and the nobility

The adoption of the Table of Ranks did not formally abolish the ancient ranks, however, they ceased to exist. He had a huge influence on the historical fate of the nobility and the routine of service. The regulating factor for changing one's official position was personal merit.

Major historical significance The table of ranks is in the loss of the breed's "fatherly honor" in relation to promotion. Also, military service was separated from civil and court service. This had an impact on the process of democratization of the nobility. When it was consolidated, they created a division of the class into groups: personal and local. By holding the rank of the lower military class, a person could acquire nobility for all his descendants.

"Talking" names

In Russia it was not customary to use titles of nobility. There were no special prefix particles for surnames either. Despite this, a person’s initials sometimes contained affiliation with the nobility.

Patronymic originated in Rus' only in the 16th century and then it was perceived as a reward, and therefore not everyone could use it. Only the sovereign was allowed to specify who should write the ending “-vich”. in 1697, Peter the Great allowed Yakov Fedorovich Dolgorukov to use his patronymic. During the time of Catherine the First, a list of people reflected in Government documents with patronymic names was compiled.

Surnames also arose immediately and not for everyone. Last names were added to princes in the 15th and 16th centuries, and by the beginning of the 18th century every nobleman already had last names. Usually, they were created according to the father's surname and the name of the property. In principle, there were many methods for forming surnames of a noble family. A separate category was made up of the names of ancient princely families descended from Rurik. Until the end of the 19th century, five of them survived:

1. Yeletskys.
2. Mosalskie.
3. Zvenigorodsky.
4. Vyazemsky.
5. Rostov.

Last names were assigned randomly and were not introduced by law. If there were doubts when choosing a surname, they chose double ones, which are still relevant today.

Document meaning

The adopted document was intended to streamline and systematize the civil service, as well as make the assignment of ranks clear. After the appearance of this Report Card, the civil service became more transparent. It described the created Old Russian titles, which were no longer given in the future. This meant that the state was freed from the orders and structure of Moscow Rus' and took a new path of government.

The key significance of the Table of Ranks is that the chances of receiving a title and moving up the career ladder became much greater, and they were independent of the level of nobility of the family. This change led to the fact that personal merit and success mattered more than parental honors. Now a commoner can also have the title of nobility, and the nobility itself was divided into personal and noble.

Document, approved by Peter the Great, divided the service into civil, court and military, and this did not exist before.

A similar document also exists today. It presents in the form of a table the ratio of ranks of the state federal civil service, ranks of members of justice and military, as well as prosecutors.

In the Russian Republic and the Russian Empire, it also indicates the ratio of seniority of various ranks and the sequence in which ranks are promoted.

It was approved by Peter I in January 1722 and existed until November 1917 with numerous changes. In some territories controlled by the Cossack and White governments, its effect remained until October 1922. There is no law “Table of Ranks” in the Russian Federation.

History of creation

Tsar Peter actively participated in the creation and editing of this law, which is based on borrowings from the list of ranks of the Prussian, French, Danish and Swedish kingdoms. Peter, having personally amended the draft draft, signed it in 1721, but before publication he ordered that this law be submitted for consideration by the Senate.

The contents of the "Table of Ranks" of Tsarist Russia, in addition to the Senate, were also considered in the Admiralty and Military Collegiums, where a number of comments were made on how to place ranks by rank, on salaries, as well as on the introduction of ancient Russian ranks into the table and about eliminating the clause on penalties for occupying a place that was higher than the corresponding rank in the church. All these points were, however, left without further consideration in the law “Table of Ranks” (Russian Empire). Members of the Senate Bruce and Golovkin, as well as Dmitriev-Mamonov and Matyushkin, major generals, took part in drawing up the final version.

"Table of Ranks": how they served the state in Tsarist Russia

On January 24, 1722, the tsar approved the document. All ranks were now divided into the following three types: civil, military and courtiers. They were also included in 14 different classes.

The “Table of Ranks” in Tsarist Russia numbered a total of 263 positions, but then some of them were abolished, and at the end of the 18th century they disappeared completely.

Hereditary nobility

The 14th class (Fendrik, and later, from 1730, ensign) gave a person the right to hereditary nobility, which in the civil service was acquired upon reaching the eighth class (the rank of collegiate assessor), and the 14th (that is, collegiate registrar) gave the right only to the nobility of its bearer.

According to the Manifesto issued on June 11, 1845, hereditary nobility was acquired along with promotion to the 8th class (which corresponded to the rank of staff officer). Born before their fathers received it, children represented a special category. They were called chief officer's children. Moreover, one of them could be granted hereditary nobility at the request of the father.

Changes that occurred later in the "Table of Ranks"

In December 1856, Alexander II, by his decree, limited the subjects of the hereditary nobility to the rank of colonel (this is the 6th class), and in the civil service - the 4th class.

As you can see, the original version that the “Table of Ranks” had in Tsarist Russia changed as a result of reforms over almost two centuries. A number of civil positions turned into titles of civil ranks, regardless of the actual responsibilities of their representatives.

Retired titles

The ranks of the 5th class (state councilor/brigadier) stood apart; they were not classified as either generals or officers; they were entitled to the following address - “your honor.”

Ranks, although this was not specifically stated, were given exclusively to men. Wives entered into the rank corresponding to their husbands, and unmarried girls were considered several ranks lower than their fathers. A rule was also introduced according to which for demanding places and honors above one’s rank during official meetings and public celebrations, a fine was imposed, which was equal to two months’ salary of this person, of which 2/3 of the money was to be received by the informer. The same fine was provided for giving up one's position to a person of lower rank. Livery, crew, lifestyle - everything must be in accordance with the rank held.

Preference for military ranks by Peter I

Peter I, emphasizing in everything his preference for the civilian military, did not want to establish corresponding first-class ranks for persons in the civil service. But, succumbing to Osterman’s persuasion, for reasons of diplomatic prestige, he equated the rank of chancellor (head of some diplomatic department) with him.

The rank of Privy Councilor, First Class, was established only later. Peter's preference was also expressed in the fact that if in the army with the rank of 14th class hereditary nobility was achieved, then in the civil service - only with the rank of collegiate assessor (8th class, staff officer rank). Starting from 1856, for this it was necessary to obtain the rank of general, that is, to become an actual state councilor.

Also indicative in this regard is the rather low rank (not even general) that the president of the “state” college had, that is, the minister, according to European standards.

Subsequently, ministers received the ranks of Privy Councilor and Actual Privy Councilor.

Influence on the nobility and society

With the introduction of this law, the ancient ranks (okolnichy, boyars) were not formally abolished, but since then their appointments have ceased. The “Table of Ranks” had a great influence on the historical destinies of the nobility, as well as on the official routine. Only personal merit became the only regulator of official position. Breed, “fatherly honor” has lost all meaning in this regard. This is the main historical significance of such a document as the “Table of Ranks” in Tsarist Russia.

The military was separated from the court. The acquisition of nobility by grant of the monarch, personal achievement, was legitimized. This generally influenced the democratization of the nobility, the consolidation of its service character, as well as the division of this class into new groups - personal and local.

The rank of the lowest class in military service (14th class, fendrik, and later, from 1730 - ensign) immediately provided the right to acquire nobility for all descendants. Later, with the Manifesto of 1845, it began to be given only to the 8th grade, and in the civil service - to the 5th.

From the time of Peter I until 1917, when a radical revolution in life took place in our country, a complex system of service ranks was in effect in the Russian Empire, which were assigned to civil and military employees. In classical Russian literature, words such as titular adviser, collegiate assessor are often found, without understanding the essence of which it is difficult for a modern reader to understand what social position a particular character occupies. The long-term existence of ranks in Tsarist Russia was only brought to an end.

In contact with

Publication of the Table of Ranks

Back in 1713 in my head king The idea arose about creating an apparatus of official ranks. Borrowings came from countries such as France, Sweden, Denmark and Prussia. What explained the need for such a step as the adoption of the Table of Ranks? Tsar Peter the Great sought to create court ranking system according to positions held.

So, on January 24, 1722, the Table of Ranks began to operate on Russian territory. It regulated the approval of military, civil and court ranks, the holders of which could receive various privileges from the state.

Important! There were economic and political prerequisites for the introduction of such a system. The Table system itself has changed several times over 195 years.

Position system

Today it is known for certain that Peter’s Table of Ranks was complex structural mechanism, which could only be subject to change during the reforms. Nobles, regardless of their positions, were henceforth divided into ranks from first to fourteenth. The first one was the tallest. Only representatives of the highest nobility could belong to it. The report card was important to officials who were the face of the state and performed a representative function.

The transfer of the noble title through the closest family line was legalized. For example, the wife of a nobleman who had the status of an official of the eighth rank also acquired his social position during her husband’s lifetime. In this case, it did not matter what social origin she herself had.

The most the fourteenth was considered a low class rank. He belonged to all categories of employees of Russia, then of the Russian Empire. That is, these fourteen ranks extended to military, civil and courtiers.

Officials in Tsarist Russia

As stated above, categories of citizens were divided into different classes. This took place until the revolutionary events of 1917, when the Bolsheviks abolished the classes that were used under the tsarist regime.

During the tsarist reign there were such positions as:

1. Titular Advisor.
2. State Councillor.
3. Collegiate Secretary.
4. Provincial Secretary.
5. Court Advisor.

Let's figure out in order what functions the entire apparatus of the above-mentioned officials included and what persons could be included in this class system.

Table of ranks

Titular Councilor is a civil rank of the ninth grade. By the words “titular councilor” it should be understood that this official occupies an intermediate position between the councilor and the secretary. The introduction of this service rank was personally approved by Tsar Peter I on January 24, 1722, and canceled on November 11, 1917. Since 1845 a titular councilor could have personal nobility, which was previously received only starting from the fourteenth grade.

By analogy with the military sphere, an employee of this level in our country corresponded to such positions as staff captain of the infantry since 1884, Cossack captain, as well as lieutenant of the Russian navy. Thus, for the effective management of public affairs, a qualitatively new system of relations was required. It was she who created the preconditions for the expansion of the Russian state right up to the Pacific Ocean, because without the introduction of ranks according to the Western model, it would have been impossible to create such a powerful and rapidly developing empire.

Like the titular councilor, the state councilor was a civilian. His duties did not include military activities, and he was not responsible for the religious sphere of life. Until 1917, he held the civilian rank of fifth class. It was considered high social status. The address to an official of this level was “Your Highness.” It emphasized the high status of this official.

Since the mid-nineteenth century, the civil and titular councilor have occupied an important social position and belonged to the first group of officials. It was this layer that determined Russia’s foreign policy and belonged to the highest nomenklatura.

The official salaries of this group of officials were considered one of the highest; they had special rights in the field of obtaining estates. Serfs became their property, since until 1861 they did not have personal freedom.

According to the Decree of Peter the Great of February 22, 1722, state councilors were ranked among the best senior noble families. This provision was enshrined in legislative acts of the Russian state. Hereditary nobles could receive the rank of state councilor upon completion of the period of service allotted by law.

Collegiate Secretary

In Russia there was also such a category of officials as the collegiate secretary. What were its functions? Persons who belonged to this social status occupied low position. Wages were also not the highest in the state. This is a non-military rank of the tenth rank. From 1884 to 1917 he corresponded to an army lieutenant, as well as a naval midshipman.

The title of collegiate secretary was held by many famous people and literary characters:

• Poet and writer Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
• Writer and writer Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev.
• The most striking character of the Russian writer I.A. Goncharova - Ilya Ilyich Oblomov.
• The widow of the college secretary Korobochka Nastasya Petrovna is the character of N.V. Gogol.
• Alena Ivanovna (college secretary), that is, the widow of the collegiate secretary, from the work of Dostoevsky F.M. " ".

The next important link in the hierarchy among officials in the Russian Empire is the provincial secretary. What powers did he have, and what did this position represent?

Police in Tsarist Russia

Provincial Secretary

Provincial secretaries existed for 195 years: from the spring of 1722 until the February revolution of 1917. Initially mentioned in the Table as the rank of the twelfth class. Below we can present the powers of this administrative employee using the example of a table. They are directly related to the Table of Ranks of the Russian Empire:

Thus, already from the middle of the 19th century, many ranks in the Russian Empire could do without a noble title, in order to be able to succeed in public service.

Under Peter, not all residents of the empire had such a privilege, but only those who had the right to receive a hereditary title of nobility. For lower social strata, the road to noble society and all the special rights it promised was closed.

This official had the civil rank of the seventh order. This position was consolidated on the basis of the rules of the Table of Ranks. Subordinates could address him only as “Your Honor.”

Attention! Until 1745, all persons who possessed this social status were entitled to receive hereditary nobility. The reform of 1856 abolished it. The state rank of court councilor was given to doctors of sciences and teachers of higher educational institutions.

The civil rank of the seventh class in Tsarist Russia corresponded to the rank of lieutenant colonel, as well as captain of the second rank on a ship of the Russian fleet.

The most striking example from Russian classics, which shows in practice the importance of this position, is Andrei Ivanovich Stolts - one of the main characters of the novel by I.A. Goncharov "Oblomov". Also, Pyotr Petrovich Luzhin, one of Dostoevsky’s characters in Crime and Punishment, had the official status of a court adviser.

Main military ranks in Russia from 1722 to 1917:

• The lower military classes: private, corporal, ordinary ensign and others.
• Higher echelon officers: warrant officer, second lieutenant, lieutenant, captain.
• Staff officers: major, lieutenant colonel, colonel.
• High command of the Russian army: major general, lieutenant general, field marshal general.

History of Russian Goverment. Series 395. Petrovsky Table of Ranks. StarMedia

Aty-baty. Issue 48. Military ranks and ranks

Conclusion

Most of the military ranks of the Russian Empire were formed on the basis of such a step by Peter I as the adoption of the Table of Ranks, which was almost completely borrowed from the experience of European states. The above ranks in Russia were possible to receive for valiant military service to the Fatherland, subject to noble origin.

- a special bill regulating the procedure for civil service in the Russian Empire.

The table of ranks was approved on January 24, 1722 by Emperor Peter 1 and existed until November 1917 (in some territories until November 1922); During this time, the report card was regularly updated with new information and supplemented in accordance with military realities.

The main idea of ​​the table of ranks was a competent description and systematization of all ranks existing in the empire. For this purpose, they were all described, correlated by seniority and arranged in a clear sequence.

The history of the creation of the table of ranks of the Russian Empire

The idea of ​​​​adopting such a law belonged to Peter himself, who personally took part in drawing up the report card. Similar bills from France, Prussia, Sweden and Denmark were taken as a basis and model. After creating a draft, Peter personally edited it and ordered it to be submitted to the Senate, and then the Military Collegium and the Admiralty. Despite the fact that these authorities made some comments regarding the text of the bill, the table of ranks remained virtually unchanged and was soon adopted.

In a broad sense, Peter's table of ranks of 1722 was a document in which all the ranks currently existing in Russia were described sequentially by rank, as well as information about salaries, duties and rights, fines and much more.

All ranks were divided into three types - military, civil and court - and then divided into fourteen classes. The original document contained descriptions of 263 positions, some of which were later abolished.

What was especially important in the document was that the ranks were not simply described, but compared with each other. In particular, the following ranks were equal in rank: civil service - privy councilor, court service - chief equestrian. Military ranks (who had some advantage over civilians) were presented separately, which were also divided by branch of the military. Ranks were assigned not only to men, but also to women serving at court.

Military ranks were placed higher in rank than civilians and courtiers, which allowed the military to move up the career ladder faster and have a chance to become a higher noble much earlier.

The table of ranks of Tsarist Russia contained detailed information about the right of inheritance, promotion, and even the necessary appeal to an official of one or another rank. All this was created in order to facilitate public service and create a clear system for managing bureaucrats in the Russian Empire.

The meaning of the table of ranks

The appearance of such a document significantly changed the state structure. The Old Russian ranks were not abolished, but they stopped complaining, which meant the final removal of modern Russia from the order of Muscovite Rus'.

The most noticeable changes occurred among the nobles. With the new document, the paramount importance in the position of a nobleman began to be personal service, and not pedigree or the service of the father and the family as a whole, which also significantly changed the old way of life, accepted since the times of Kievan Rus. New nobles began to appear, which led to a split between the actual and hereditary nobility, with each of the newly-minted classes having its own advantages.

There was also a final division of service into military, civil and court service.

The new report card and, accordingly, the new procedure for promotion and receiving titles (not clan or class) made it possible even for poor young people from the lower classes to earn a good place and break into higher classes.

Today in modern Russia there is a similar document describing military service positions.

Every person is responsible to all people for all people and for everything.

Dostoevsky F.M.

The table of ranks was adopted by Peter 1 in January 1722. This document actually put an end to localism, streamlined the class hierarchy in Russia and allowed ordinary people to advance in their careers and receive “high” titles. For example, Menshikov, Apraksin, Tolstoy - all this is the new elite of the Peter the Great era.

The Table of Ranks introduced 14 ranks (ranks, levels) for military and civilian service in the Russian Empire. Initially, everyone (including nobles) had to begin service in a lower position, without privileges and rights. These were simple positions that did not provide privileges and were not reflected in the report card. In the future, based on their achievements and skills, everyone could rise to the 14th level, and after that gradually rise higher and higher, receiving a new rank. The timesheet itself is shown below.

Table 1: Table of ranks from 1722 to 1917

	Military ranks			Civil	Appeal
	Land	Marine	Guards
1	Field Marshal	Admiral General		Chancellor	Yours high- excellent management
2	General-in-Chief, generals from the military branches	Admiral		Actual Privy Councilor
3	Lieutenant General	Vice Admiral		Privy Councilor	Yours excellent management
4	Major General	Schoutbenacht (until 1740), Rear Admiral (after 1740)	Colonel	Actual State Councilor, Chief Prosecutor, Master of Arms
5	Brigadier	Captain Commander	Lieutenant colonel	State Councillor	Your Highness
6	Colonel	Captain 1st rank	Major	Collegiate Advisor	Yours highly nobility
7	Lieutenant colonel	Captain 2nd rank	Captain	Court Councilor
8	Major	Captain 3rd rank	Lieutenant Commander	Collegiate Assessor
9	Captain (cavalry) Captain, Esaul (among the Cossacks)	Lieutenant Commander (until 1884), Lieutenant (after 1884)	Lieutenant	Titular Councilor	Yours nobility
10	Staff Captain, Staff captain (cavalry)	Lieutenant (until 1885), Midshipman (after 1885)	Non-Commissioned Lieutenant	Collegiate Secretary
11		Ship's Secretary		Ship's Secretary
12	Lieutenant (cavalry) Lieutenant (infantry)	Non-commissioned lieutenant (until 1732), Midshipman (1796-1885)	Fendrick	Provincial Secretary
13	Second Lieutenant	Midshipman (1732-1796)		Provincial Secretary
14	Fendrick (until 1731), Cornet (cavalry) Ensign (infantry)			Collegiate Registrar

All types of services were divided into 2 categories:

1. Military service. Included land, sea and guards corps. Everyone began to serve with the rank of private, and it was possible to receive a junior rank (14th rank) no earlier than after 15 years. All military ranks were given the right to an inherited estate.
2. Civil service. Only officials from the 8th rank (collegiate assessor) and above received the right to inherited estate. The lower ranks received the estate, but could not pass it on by inheritance.

These conditions were valid until 1856. After this, new rules were introduced regarding the acquisition of nobility. Personal nobility was received from the 12th rank (Lieutenant), and hereditary nobility from the 6th rank (Colonel). In the civil service, the right to personal nobility was given by rank 9 (Titular Councilor), and hereditary - by rank 4 (Actual State Councilor).

Features of the Report Card

Under Peter, the following formula was in effect: every educated person is obliged to serve, and any educated person can serve. Since the era of Peter the Great, career advancement has been based on knowledge and skills, and not on the basis of origin. A soldier could become an officer, an ordinary citizen could become a high-ranking official. Everything depended on skills. But there is an important limitation - the table of ranks did not apply to serfs.

We talk about the Table of Contents that it gave way to educated people, but what was education in the 16th and 17th centuries? There were big problems with her, especially among the nobles. As a result, Peter 1 formulated the minimum that all nobles had to know: 4 operations of arithmetic, be able to read and write, understand a foreign language. And even with such demands the nobles had big problems. They did not want to study, so Peter introduced a system of examinations (often the king personally took them), where the knowledge of the nobles was tested, and their suitability for a certain service and place in the Report Card was checked.

The table of ranks is an attempt to systematize the public service, giving all gifted people the opportunity to prove themselves. This system had its pros and cons, but the system worked. As an example of how old noble families bypassed the Report Card, I can give the example of military service. Nobles served in the army. The service was lifelong, but after 1722 everyone started as a simple soldier and only after 15 years could they move to an officer position. Noble people then began to enroll their children in the guard immediately after birth. As a result, when the child turned 15 years old and went to the army, he already had an officer position, although he had not spent a day in the army. But this is rather an exception, since there were not many who did this. On the whole, the system worked.