Ancient civilizations of the Indus River Valley. Mysterious cities of India

March 24th, 2013

Oriental studies as a science originated in the 16th-17th centuries, when European countries embarked on the path of colonial conquest, although Europeans became acquainted with the Arab world many centuries ago. But Egyptology arose much later - the date of its birth is considered to be 1822, when the French scientist Champollion deciphered the system of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. And only relatively recently, in 1922, archaeologists first began to explore the territory along the banks of the Indus River. And immediately there was a sensation: a previously unknown ancient civilization had been discovered. It was called the Harappan civilization - after one of its main cities - Harappa.

When Indian archaeologists D. R. Sahin and R. D. Banerjee were finally able to look at the results of their excavations, they saw the red-brick ruins of the oldest city in India, belonging to the proto-Indian civilization, a city quite unusual for the time of its construction - 4.5 thousand years ago. It was planned with the greatest meticulousness: the streets were laid out as if along a ruler, the houses were basically the same, with proportions reminiscent of cake boxes. But behind this “cake” shape there was sometimes hidden such a design: in the center there was a courtyard, and around it there were four to six living rooms, a kitchen and a room for ablutions (houses with this layout are found mainly in Mohenjo-Daro, the second big city) . The preserved stairwells in some houses suggest that two-story houses were also built. The main streets were ten meters wide, the network of passages obeyed a single rule: some ran strictly from north to south, and transverse ones - from west to east.

But this monotonous city, like a chessboard, provided residents with amenities unheard of at that time. Ditches flowed through all the streets, and from them water was supplied to the houses (although wells were found near many). But more importantly, each house was connected to a sewerage system laid underground in pipes made of baked bricks and carrying all sewage outside the city limits. This was an ingenious engineering solution that allowed large masses of people to gather in a fairly limited space: in the city of Harappa, for example, at times up to 80,000 people lived. The instinct of the city planners of that time was truly amazing! Knowing nothing about pathogenic bacteria, especially active in warm climates, but probably having accumulated observational experience, they protected settlements from the spread of dangerous diseases.

And ancient builders came up with another protection against natural adversities. Like the early great civilizations born on the banks of rivers - Egypt on the Nile, Mesopotamia on the Tigris and Euphrates, China on the Yellow River and Yangtze - Harappa arose in the Indus Valley, where the soils were highly fertile. But on the other hand, these very places have always suffered from high floods, reaching 5-8 meters in the flat river. To save cities from spring waters, in India they were built on brick platforms ten meters high and even higher. Nevertheless, cities were built in a short time, in a few years.

The first inhabitants of the Indus River Valley were nomadic tribes who gradually settled down and took up farming and cattle breeding. Gradually, conditions were created for urbanization and the emergence of urban culture. Since 3500 BC Large cities with a population of up to 50,000 people appear in the Indus River Valley. The cities of the Harappan civilization had a strict layout of streets and houses, a sewerage system and were perfectly adapted for life. Their device was so perfect that it did not change for a millennium! In its development, the Indus Valley Civilization was not inferior to the great civilizations of that time. From the cities there was a lively trade with Mesopotamia, the Sumerian kingdom and Central Asia, and a unique system of weights and measures was used.

Archaeological finds also indicate a fairly high culture of the “Harappans”. Terracotta and bronze figurines, models of carts, seals, and jewelry were found. These finds are the oldest artifacts of Indian culture. By the beginning of the second millennium BC, the Indus Valley Civilization fell into decline and disappeared from the face of the earth for unknown reasons.

In the early twenties of the now last century, the Indian scientist R. Sahni led the first expedition to the Indus River delta to find the ruins of a temple that belonged to the most ancient deity - “old Shiva”. The temple was mentioned in many legends of the Ho people, whose possessions in ancient times bordered the territory that belonged to the northern maharajas. Myths told “about mountains of heavenly gold stored in the dungeons of the temple”... So there was still a considerable incentive to rummage through the swampy ground.

Imagine Sahni’s surprise when his people began to dig out from the ground entire city blocks of multi-story buildings, imperial palaces, huge statues made of bronze and pure iron. From under the shovels one could see pavements equipped with deep gutters for carriage wheels, gardens, parks, courtyards and wells. Closer to the outskirts, luxury diminished: here one- and two-story buildings with four to six rooms with a toilet were grouped around central courtyards with wells. The city was surrounded by a wall of rough, unhewn, but very tightly adjacent stones, alternating with adobe brickwork. The citadel was an even taller and stronger stronghold, equipped with several towers. A real and very cleverly designed water supply system was installed in the imperial chambers - and this was three and a half thousand years before the discovery of the laws of hydraulics by Pascal!

The excavations of huge libraries, represented by repositories of stearine tablets with pictograms that have not yet been deciphered, caused considerable surprise. Images and figurines of animals, which also had mysterious writings, were also kept there. Experts who established some periodicity of the signs came to the conclusion that a rhymed epic or religious prayers in verse were written down here. Among the metal products found were copper and bronze knives, sickles, chisels, saws, swords, shields, arrowheads and spearheads. No iron objects could be found. Obviously, by that time people had not yet learned how to mine it (And in the previous paragraph it is said that statues made of iron were found! This means they knew how to mine! And melt! And make statues!!! - D.B.). It came to Earth only with meteorites and was considered a sacred metal, along with gold. Gold served as a setting for ritual objects and women's jewelry.

In the best years of the Harappan civilization, smaller villages mushroomed around the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro - there were about 1400 of them. To date, excavations have cleared only one tenth of the area of ​​​​the two ancient capitals. However, it has already been established that the uniformity of the buildings is being broken in some places. In Dolavir, which lies east of the Indus delta, archaeologists discovered richly decorated gates, arches with colonnades, and in Mohenjo-Daro - the so-called “Great Pool”, surrounded by a veranda with columns and rooms, probably for undressing.

Townspeople

Archaeologist L. Gottrel, who worked in Harappa in 1956, believed that in such barracks cities one could meet not people, but disciplined ants. “In this culture,” the archaeologist wrote, “there was little joy, but a lot of work, and material things played a predominant role.” However, the scientist was wrong. The strength of Harappan society was the urban population. According to the conclusions of current archaeologists, the city, despite its architectural impersonality, was inhabited by people who did not suffer from melancholy, but, on the contrary, were distinguished by enviable vital energy and hard work.

What did the people of Harappa do? The face of the city was determined by merchants and artisans. Here they spun yarn from wool, wove, made pottery - its strength is close to stone, cut bones, and made jewelry. Blacksmiths worked with copper and bronze, forging tools from it that were surprisingly strong for this alloy, almost like steel. They knew how to give some minerals such high hardness by heat treatment that they could drill holes in carnelian beads. The products of the masters of that time already had a unique appearance, a kind of ancient Indian design that has survived to this day. For example, today in peasant houses located in the excavation areas of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, there are things in household use that amazed archaeologists with their “proto-Indian” appearance. This circumstance only emphasizes the words of the founder of the Indian state, J. Nehru: “Throughout five thousand years of history of invasions and coups, India has maintained a continuous cultural tradition.”

What is the basis of such constancy? Anthropologist G. Possel from the University of Pennsylvania (USA) came to the conclusion that this is the result of a combination in the character of the ancient Hindus of such qualities as prudence, peacefulness and sociability. No other historical civilization has combined these features together.
Between 2600 and 1900 BC. e. the society of merchants and artisans is flourishing. The country then occupies more than one million square kilometers. Sumer and Egypt combined were half that size.

It was not by chance that the proto-Indian civilization arose on the banks of the Indus. As in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the river was the basis of life: it brought fertile silt from the upper reaches and, leaving it on the vast banks of the floodplain, maintained the high fertility of the land. People began to engage in agriculture in the ninth to seventh millennia. Now they no longer had to hunt or collect edible greens from morning to night; people had time to think, to make more advanced tools. Stable harvests gave man the opportunity to develop. A division of labor arose: one plowed the land, the other made stone tools, the third traded artisan products in neighboring communities for things his fellow tribesmen did not produce.

This Neolithic revolution took place on the banks of the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Yellow River and Indus. Archaeologists in India have already excavated its late phase - when Harappa and other cities reached a certain perfection. By this time, people engaged in agricultural work had already learned to cultivate many crops: wheat, barley, millet, peas, sesame (this is also the birthplace of cotton and rice). They raised chickens, goats, sheep, pigs, cows and even zebu, fished and collected edible fruits grown by nature itself.

The prosperity of the Harappan civilization was based on highly productive agriculture (two crops were harvested a year) and cattle breeding. A 2.5 kilometer long artificial canal discovered at Lothal suggests that irrigation was used for agriculture.

One of the researchers of Ancient India, Russian scientist A. Ya. Shchetenko, defines this period as follows: thanks to “magnificent alluvial soils, a humid tropical climate and proximity to the advanced centers of agriculture in Western Asia, already in the 4th-3rd millennia BC the population of the Indus Valley was significantly ahead in the progressive development of our southern neighbors."

Riddles of writing

The society of merchants and artisans, apparently, had neither a monarch nor priests at its head: in the cities there are no luxurious buildings intended for those who stand above the common people. There are also no magnificent grave monuments that even remotely resemble the Egyptian pyramids in their scale. Surprisingly, this civilization did not need an army, it had no campaigns of conquest, and it seems that it had no one to defend itself from. As far as the excavations allow us to judge, the inhabitants of Harappa did not have weapons. They lived in an oasis of peace - this is in perfect agreement with the description of the morals of the ancient Hindus given above.

Print with the image of a unicorn and hieroglyphs.

Some researchers attribute the absence of fortresses and palaces in cities to the fact that ordinary citizens also took part in decisions important to society. On the other hand, numerous finds of stone seals with images of all kinds of animals indicate that the government was oligarchic, it was divided among clans of merchants and land owners. But this point of view is to some extent contradicted by another conclusion of archaeologists: in the excavated dwellings they found no signs of wealth or poverty of the owners. So maybe writing can answer these questions?

Scholars studying the history of ancient India find themselves in a worse position than their colleagues studying the past of Egypt and Mesopotamia. In the last two civilizations, writing appeared many hundreds of years earlier than in Harappa. But it's not only that. Harappan writings are extremely sparse and, to say the least, laconic; pictorial signs, that is, hieroglyphs, are used in inscriptions in just a few - 5-6 hieroglyphs per text. The longest text was recently found, it has 26 characters. Meanwhile, inscriptions on household pottery objects are found quite often, and this suggests that literacy was not the lot of only the elite. The main thing, however, is that the decipherers still have a long way to go: the language is not known, and the writing system is not yet known.

At the present stage of work, the study of found objects of material culture becomes even more important. For example, an elegant figurine of a dancing woman fell into the hands of archaeologists. This gave reason to one of the historians to assume that the city loved music and dancing. Usually this kind of action is associated with the performance of religious rites. But what is the role of the “Great Pool” discovered in Mohenjo-daro? Did it serve as a bathhouse for residents or was it a place for religious ceremonies? It was not possible to answer such an important question: did the townspeople worship the same gods, or did each group have its own special god? There are new excavations ahead.

Neighbours

Archaeologists have a rule: to look for traces of its connections with them from the neighbors of the country being studied. The Harappan civilization found itself in Mesopotamia - its merchants visited the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates. This is evidenced by the merchant's indispensable companions - weights. The Harappan type of weights was standardized so that the weights from these sites are similar to labeled atoms. They are found in many places on the coast of the Arabian Sea, and if you move north, then on the shores of the Amu Darya. The presence of Indian merchants here is confirmed by the found seals of Harappan trading people (Doctor of Historical Sciences I. F. Albedil points out this in his book “The Forgotten Civilization in the Indus Valley”). Sumerian cuneiforms mention the overseas country of Meluh, or Meluhha; today's archeology identifies this name with Harappa.

In one of the bays of the Arabian Sea, the port city of Lothal, which belonged to the Harappan complex, was recently found during excavations. There was a shipbuilding dock, a grain warehouse and a pearl processing workshop.

Bulls harnessed to a cart. A children's toy found in the excavations of the Harappan civilization.

By the middle of the 20th century, excavations began to decline. However, the curiosity of the researchers did not dry up. After all, the main mystery remained unresolved: what was the reason for the death of a great and formidable civilization?
About thirty years ago, New York researcher William Fairservice claimed to be able to recognize some Harappan writings found in the capital's library. And seven years later, Indian scientists tried to combine what they “read” with the ancient legends of the peoples of India and Pakistan, after which they came to interesting conclusions.

It turns out that Harappa arose long before the third millennium. On its territory there were at least three warring states - carriers of different cultures. The strong fought with the weak, and in the end there were only rival countries with administrative centers in Mohend-Daro and Harappa. The long war ended with an unexpected peace, the kings shared power. Then the most powerful of them killed the rest and thereby appeared before the face of the gods. Soon the villain was found killed, and royal power passed into the hands of the high priest. Thanks to contacts with the “highest mind,” the priests passed on useful knowledge to people.

In just a couple of years (!), the inhabitants of Harappa were already making full use of huge flour mills, equipped with grain storage conveyors, foundries, and sewers. Carts pulled by elephants moved along the city streets. In large cities there were theaters, museums and even circuses with wild animals! During the last period of Harappan existence, its inhabitants learned to mine charcoal and build primitive boiler houses. Now almost every city dweller could take a hot bath! The townspeople extracted natural phosphorus and used some plants to illuminate their homes. They were familiar with winemaking and opium smoking, as well as the full range of amenities that civilization offered.

Sculpture from Mohenjo-Daro, where the people lived, apparently without knowing rulers and priests.

What goods did proto-Indian merchants transport, for example, to Mesopotamia? Tin, copper, lead, gold, shells, pearls and ivory. All these expensive goods, as one might think, were intended for the ruler’s court. Merchants also acted as intermediaries. They sold copper mined in Balochistan, a country lying to the west of the Harappan civilization, and gold, silver and lapis lazuli bought in Afghanistan. Construction timber was brought from the Himalayas by oxen.

In the 19th century BC. e. Proto-Indian civilization ceased to exist. At first it was believed that she died from the aggression of the Vedo-Aryan tribes, who plundered farmers and merchants. But archeology has shown that cities liberated from sediment do not show signs of struggle and destruction by barbarian invaders. Moreover, recent research by historians has revealed that the Vedo-Aryan tribes were far from these places at the time of the death of Harappa.

The decline of civilization was apparently due to natural causes. Climate change or earthquakes may have altered the flow of rivers or dried them out and depleted the soils. The farmers were no longer able to feed the cities, and the inhabitants abandoned them. The huge social and economic complex disintegrated into small groups. Writing and other cultural achievements were lost. There is nothing to suggest that the decline occurred overnight. Instead of empty cities in the north and south, new settlements appeared at this time, people moved east, to the Ganges valley.

A female figurine discovered by archaeologists.

There is also this unpopular opinion:

This was explained in different ways: flooding, a sharp deterioration in climate, epidemics, enemy invasions. However, the flood version was soon ruled out, because no traces of the elements were visible in the ruins of cities and soil layers. Versions about epidemics were not confirmed either. Conquest was also excluded, since there were no traces of the use of bladed weapons on the skeletons of the Harappan inhabitants. One thing was obvious: the suddenness of the disaster. And just recently, scientists Vincenti and Davenport put forward a new hypothesis: civilization died from an atomic explosion caused by aerial bombardment!

The entire center of the city of Mohenjo-Daro was destroyed so that no stone was left unturned. The pieces of clay found there looked melted, and structural analysis showed that the melting occurred at a temperature of about 1600 degrees! Human skeletons have been found on the streets, in houses, in basements and even in underground tunnels. Moreover, the radioactivity of many of them exceeded the norm by more than 50 times! In the ancient Indian epic there are many legends about terrible weapons, “sparkling like fire, but without smoke.” The explosion, after which darkness covers the sky, gives way to hurricanes, “bringing evil and death.” Clouds and earth - all this mixed together, in chaos and madness, even the sun began to quickly move in a circle! The elephants, burned by the flames, rushed about in horror, the water boiled, the fish were charred, and the warriors rushed into the water to wash away the “deadly dust”...

However, the following research results have recently emerged:

In a publication on the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution's website, "Climate change led to the collapse of the ancient Indus civilization, study finds," Liviu Giosan, study director and lead author, a geologist at the institute, says: "We have reconstructed the dynamic landscape of the plain where the Indus civilization formed 5,200 years ago. , built its cities, and then slowly faded away somewhere from 3900 to 3000 years ago.The debate about the connection between this mysterious ancient culture and the mighty, life-giving river still rages.

Nowadays, the remains of Harappan settlements are located in a vast desert region far from the rivers."

Archaeological research in Pakistan and India has revealed a complex urban culture with multiple internal trade routes, sea connections with Mesopotamia, unique building structures, sewers, highly developed arts and crafts and writing.

Unlike the Egyptians and Mesopotamians, who used irrigation systems, the Harappans relied on the gentle, reliable monsoon cycle. Monsoons filled local rivers and springs. It was a “temperate civilization,” as researchers call it for its balanced climatic conditions, explains the author of a blog on the New York Times website.

But after two thousand years, the climatic “window” for agricultural stability closed. Dramatic climate change buried this ancient civilization.

Scientists from the US, UK, Pakistan, India and Romania, specializing in geology, geomorphology, archeology and mathematics, conducted research in Pakistan in 2003-2008. The researchers combined data from satellite photographs and topographic maps, and collected soil and sediment samples from the Indus River delta and its tributaries. The data obtained made it possible to reconstruct a picture of changes in the landscape of this region over the past 10 thousand years.

New research suggests that decreased monsoon rainfall led to weakened dynamics of the Indus River and played a crucial role in both the development and collapse of the Harappan culture.

Before the plain began to be populated en masse, the wild and powerful Indus and its tributaries flowing from the Himalayas cut deep valleys, leaving high areas in the interfluves. The existence of deep rivers was also supported by monsoon rains. The result was a hilly plain with heights ranging from 10 to 20 meters, a width of more than a hundred kilometers and a length of almost a thousand kilometers - the so-called Indus mega-watershed formed by the river.

“Nothing like this has been described on such a scale in the geomorphological literature. The mega-watershed is a striking sign of the stability of the Indus on the plains over the last four millennia. The remains of Harappan settlements are still on the surface of the ridge, and not underground,” geologist Liviu Giosan is quoted as saying in a Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution press release.

Over time, the monsoons weakened, the flow from the mountains decreased, and the Indus became quiet, allowing agricultural settlements to be established on its banks. For two thousand years, civilization flourished, but the region's climate gradually became drier and the window of opportunity eventually closed. People began to leave east, to the Ganges.

In parallel, the researchers managed, in their opinion, to clarify the fate of the mythical Saraswati River, according to the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution website. The Vedas describe the region west of the Ganges as “the land of seven rivers.” It also speaks of a certain Saraswati, who “with her greatness surpassed all other waters.” Most scientists suspect that we are talking about the Ghaggar River. Today it flows only during strong monsoons through the dry Hakra Valley.

Archaeological evidence suggests that this valley was densely populated during Harappan times. Geological evidence suggests that the river was large, but its bed was not as deep as that of the Indus and its tributaries, and there is no connection with the nearby Sutlej and Yamuna rivers, which are filled with water from the Himalayan glaciers, and the Vedas specify that the Saraswati flowed precisely from the Himalayas.

A new study argues that these fundamental differences prove that the Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra) was not filled by Himalayan glaciers, but by perennial monsoons. With climate change, rains began to bring less moisture, and the once deep Saraswati River turned into a seasonal mountain stream. 3,900 years ago, the rivers began to dry up and the Harappans began to move into the Ganges basin, where monsoon rains fell steadily.

“So the cities collapsed, but the small agricultural communities were resilient and prosperous. Much of the urban arts, such as writing, disappeared, but agriculture continued and, surprisingly, was diverse,” Dorian Fuller of University College London quotes in her Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution study.

Study leader Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution geologist Liviu Giosan says a surprising amount of archaeological work has accumulated over recent decades, but it has never been properly linked to the evolution of the river landscape.

“We now see landscape dynamics as a link between climate change and people,” notes Liviu Giosan in a paper published by the institute.

sources

The name of the Indus River served as the basis for the name of the country - “India”, which in ancient times meant the space east of the Indus, where the states of Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh are currently located. Until relatively recently (several more than a hundred years ago), the Aryan aliens were considered the first creators of civilization on the Indian subcontinent. The generally accepted opinion was that no information about the great previous culture was preserved in written texts. Now we can say that they are still recognized, although with difficulty. In particular, Strabo’s “Geography”, with reference to the Greek Aristobulus, speaks of a vast country abandoned by its inhabitants due to a change in the course of the Indus. Such information is rare, and sources characterizing the Harappan culture, or the Indus Valley civilization, were obtained and continue to be obtained during archaeological excavations.

History of the study

Alexander Cunningham. 1814-1893 The first head of the Indian Archaeological Survey.

The Harappan civilization, unlike most other ancient civilizations, began to be studied relatively recently. Its first signs were discovered in the 60s of the 19th century, when samples of stamp seals so characteristic of this civilization were found near Harappa in Punjab. They were discovered during the construction of road embankments, for which purpose huge masses of the ancient cultural layer were used. The seal was noticed by engineer officer A. Cunningham, later the first head of the Archaeological Survey of India. He is considered one of the founders of Indian archaeology.

However, only in 1921, an employee of the Archaeological Service R.D. Banerjee, while exploring the Buddhist monument at Mohenjo-Daro (“Hill of the Dead”), discovered here traces of a much more ancient culture, which he identified as pre-Aryan. At the same time, R.B. Sahni began excavations at Harappa. Soon, the head of the Archaeological Service, J. Marshall, began systematic excavations in Mohenjo-Daro, the results of which made the same stunning impression as the excavations of G. Schliemann in Troy and mainland Greece: already in the first years, monumental structures made of baked bricks and works of art were found ( including the famous sculpture of the “priest king”). The relative age of the civilization, traces of which began to be found in various regions of the north of the peninsula, was determined thanks to the finds of characteristic seals in the cities of Mesopotamia, first in Kish and Lagash, then in others. In the early 30s of the XX century. The date of the civilization, the existence of which was not recognized in the ancient written texts of its neighbors, was determined as 2500-1800. BC. It is noteworthy that, despite new dating methods, including radiocarbon dating, the dating of the Harappan civilization during its heyday is not much different now from that proposed more than 70 years ago, although calibrated dates suggest its greater antiquity.

Lively debate was caused by the problem of the origin of this civilization, which, as it soon became clear, spread over a vast territory. Based on the information that existed at that time, it was natural to assume that the impulses or direct influences that contributed to its emergence came from the west, from the region of Iran and Mesopotamia. In this regard, special attention was paid to the Indo-Iranian border region - Balochistan. The first finds were made here back in the 20s of the 20th century. M.A. Stein, but large-scale research was undertaken after the Second World War and the acquisition of independence by the states of the subcontinent.

Before the emergence of independent states, archaeological research on Harappan culture was limited mainly to the central region of the “Great Indus Valley” (a term coined by M.R. Mughal), where the largest cities, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, are located. Then in India, intensive research was carried out in Gujarat (large excavations - Lothal and Surkotada), Rajasthan (excavations of Kalibangan are especially important here), and Punjab. Large-scale work in the second half of the 20th century. were carried out where the river used to flow. Hakra-Ghaggar. About 400 settlements with strata from pre-Harappan to post-Harappan cultures were discovered here.

In the 50-60s, data was obtained on Eneolithic (Chalcolithic) cultures, the ceramics of which were similar to finds known in Iran, Afghanistan, and southern Turkmenistan. Assumptions about the influence from these regions, which caused the emergence of first the pre-Harappan cultures, and then Harappa itself, were later corrected. What seemed to be evidence of migrations began to be perceived as the result of interactions, influences that turned out to be beneficial, since the local population had the ability not only to perceive them, but also to transform them, based on their own traditions. A special role in understanding the processes of the emergence of the Indus Valley civilization was played by excavations in Pakistan, in particular the Neolithic - Bronze Age settlements of Mehrgarh on the river. Bolan, conducted by French researchers.

For the preservation and future research of the monuments of the Harappan civilization, the efforts undertaken by UNESCO in the 60s of the 20th century are important. attempts to save one of the most important cities - Mohenjo-Daro - from soil water and salinization. As a result, new data were obtained that clarified and supplemented those already known.

Territory and natural conditions of the Indus Valley

The Indus Valley lies in the northwestern corner of the vast subcontinent, most of which is currently located in Pakistan. It is part of a zone of cultural integration, bounded on the north by the Amu Darya, on the south by Oman, extending 2000 km north of the Tropic of Cancer. The climate throughout the zone is continental, the rivers have internal drainage.
From the north, the subcontinent is bounded by the highest mountain system of the Himalayas and Karakoram, from where the largest rivers of the peninsula originate. The Himalayas play an important role in meeting the summer monsoon, redistributing its course, and condensing excess moisture in glaciers. It is important that the mountains are rich in wood, including valuable species. From the southwest and southeast the peninsula is washed by the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The Indo-Gangetic Plain forms a crescent 250-350 km wide, its length from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal is 3000 km. Five tributaries of the Indus irrigate the plain of the Punjab-Five Rivers - these are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. The western part of the Ganges valley and the area between the Ganges and the Jamna (Doab) is the place of formation of the classical culture of India, Aryavarta (Country of the Aryans). In the Karachi region, Indus deposits form a shelf 200 km long. Now the Indus Valley is a bare lowland with dry river beds and sand dunes, although even under the Mughals it was covered with dense forests teeming with game.

To the south of the plain lie the highlands and Vindhya mountains, to the south is the arid Deccan plateau, framed on the west and east by the mountain ranges - the Western and Eastern Ghats. Most of the rivers of the plateau flow from west to east, with the exception of only two significant ones - the Narmada and the Tapti. The geographical continuation of the peninsula is the island of Ceylon. The coastal part is narrow, with few good ports. The total length of the subcontinent from Kashmir to Cape Comorin is about 3200 km.

In the northwest, a significant part of Pakistan is occupied by the mountains and valleys of Balochistan. This is an area that played an important role in the formation of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The sources of minerals used in ancient times were located both outside (which will be discussed specifically below) the subcontinent and on it itself. Copper probably came, in particular, from deposits between Kabul and Kurrat, from Balochistan and Rajasthan (Ganesh-var-Khetri deposit). One of the sources of tin could have been deposits in Bengal; it is possible that it also came from Afghanistan. Gold and silver could come from Afghanistan and the south of the Deccan. Semi-precious and ornamental minerals were delivered from Khorasan (turquoise), from the Pamirs, from Eastern Turkestan, from Tibet, from Northern Burma (lapis lazuli, jade). Deposits of ornamental stones, from which people loved to make beads, were located on the subcontinent.

The climate, generally tropical monsoon, is at the same time diverse. In the Indo-Iranian border region it is semi-arid with predominantly summer precipitation. East Sindh receives 7 mm of rainfall annually. In the north, in the Himalayas, winters are cold, on the plains they are mild, and summers are hot, temperatures up to +43°C. On the Deccan Plateau, temperature fluctuations between seasons are less dramatic.

The geographical location of the Indian subcontinent determines the specifics of its climate, and therefore the characteristics of its economy. From October to May, rain is rare, with the exception of areas of the west coast and certain areas of Ceylon. The peak of heat occurs in April, by the end of which the grass burns out and leaves fall from the trees. In June, the monsoon season begins, lasting about two months. At this time, activities outside homes are difficult, nevertheless, it is perceived by Indians as Europeans perceive spring, a time of revitalization of nature. Now, as partly in ancient times, two types of crops are practiced - rabi, using artificial irrigation, in which the crop was harvested in early summer, and kharif, in which the crop was harvested in the fall. Previously, soil fertility was regularly restored by the floods of the Indus, and farming conditions were favorable for agriculture, livestock breeding, fishing, and hunting.

The nature of the subcontinent is characterized by its peculiar severity - people suffered and continue to suffer from heat and floods, epidemic diseases characteristic of a hot and humid climate. At the same time, nature served as a powerful stimulus for the formation of a vibrant and original culture.

Characteristics of the Harappan civilization

Chronology and cultural communities

The chronology of the Harappan civilization is based on evidence of its contacts mainly with Mesopotamia and radiocarbon dates. Its existence is divided into three stages:

• 2900-2200 BC. - early
• 2200-1800 BC. - developed (mature)
• 1800-1300 BC. - late

Calibrated dates date its beginnings back to 3200 BC. A number of researchers note that calibrated dates conflict with Mesopotamian dating. Some researchers (in particular, K.N. Dikshit) believe that the late period of the Harappan civilization lasted until 800 BC, i.e. the time of iron's appearance here. Nowadays it can be considered a generally accepted opinion that the end of the existence of civilization was not immediate and in some areas it existed until the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. and further.

"Dancing Girl" Found in 1926 in Mohejo-Daro. Copper, height 14 cm. Approx. 2500-1600 BC.

For a long time, there was an idea in science of the Harappan civilization as something uniform and little changing over the centuries. This idea is the result of a lack of information and underestimation by archaeologists at a certain stage of research of facts indicating the peculiarities of the relationship between human economic activity and the natural environment, the characteristics of economic activity and culture in the broadest sense of the word. In recent decades, archaeologists have identified several zones characterized by specific features of material culture -

• eastern,
• northern,
• central,
• southern,
• western,
• southeast.

Nevertheless, the proximity of the material elements of civilization, at least during its heyday, presupposes the existence of a culture whose bearers in different areas maintained close contacts with each other. How were their communities organized? Why did such a large community develop at all? Why is it believed (although new evidence may refute this) that large cities emerge relatively quickly? What role did trade play in civilization? Judging by how ideas about this culture are changing under the influence of new discoveries, its image is still very far from clear.

Geography of areas of cultural distribution and their features

The main areas of distribution of the Harappan civilization are the Indus Valley in Sindh with the adjacent lowlands, the middle reaches of the Indus, Punjab and adjacent areas, Gujarat, Balochistan. At the peak of its development, Harappa occupied an unusually vast territory for an early civilization - about 800,000 square meters. km, significantly exceeding the territory of the early states of Mesopotamia and Egypt. Probably, not all territories were inhabited at the same time and developed with the same intensity. It can be assumed that the development of the Indus Valley also took place from the territory of Baluchistan; it was the inhabitants of this region that could lay the foundations of the Harappan civilization. At the same time, more and more materials are appearing indicating the existence of pre-Harappan inhabitants in the Indus Valley. Gujarat acquires importance only at a later stage, at the same time Makran is being developed (its coast is convenient for navigation), signs of the Harappan civilization indicate the gradual spread of its carriers to the south (in particular, in Kutch, Harappan ceramics appear along with local pottery) and the east. Climatically, these zones differ:

• The plains of Pakistan experience the effects of the summer monsoons.
• The climate on the Makran coast is Mediterranean.
• In Baluchistan, small oases are located in river valleys with permanent or seasonal watercourses, and pastures are located on mountain slopes.
• In some areas (Quetta Valley), where rainfall is relatively high (more than 250 mm per year), rain-fed farming is possible on a limited scale. In this area there are deposits of various minerals, copper; Lapis lazuli was recently discovered in the Chagai Mountains, but the question of the use of this deposit in ancient times still remains open.

Balochistan is important as a relatively well-studied region, where settlement dynamics can be traced back to the Neolithic era (Mehrgarh). At the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. the population in the north and central part becomes rare and only in the south does the Kulli culture continue to exist. It is possible that the reason is the disruption of old economic ties between the population of mountainous zones and valleys. At the same time, the population of the Indus Valley increases, although the relative desolation of Balochistan does not mean that only from this region there was an influx of population; moreover, it is very likely that for various and as yet unclear reasons, people from other neighboring regions came to the area of ​​​​the Harappan civilization. It is noteworthy that Harappan settlements were also located on the edge of the Indus Valley, on the routes leading to Iran and Afghanistan.

The emergence of such a vast civilization is the result of economic and cultural integration, in which regional characteristics were preserved. Continuity of development with neighboring areas and with the pre-Harappan cultures of the Indus Valley can be traced in many ways. In the end, a completely unique culture was formed. Its most important features are

• extensive development of large river valleys,
• the emergence of large cities (evidence of the existence of a complexly structured society or societies),
• exchange over long distances,
• development of crafts and highly artistic arts,
• the emergence of writing,
• the existence of complex religious ideas, calendar, etc.

It is hardly productive to believe that the “idea of ​​civilization” was brought to the Indus Valley from outside, from Mesopotamia or Iran. On the contrary, all available evidence points to its deep local roots, although one cannot ignore the role of contacts with other cultural formations, the extent of the expected impact of which, however, remains unclear. Thus, A. Dani believed that in neighboring Iran three regions played an extremely important role in the formation of Harappa - the southeast (Bampur, Tepe Yahya and the coast), the Helmand region, an intermediary in the transfer of northern and southeastern Iranian cultural elements, and the Damgana region in the northeast. From there, connections spread through Afghanistan and Balochistan. Further we will have to say what role distant connections played in the history of Harappa.

The central part of the Harappan civilization was located in the Indus Valley, a huge river with a variable course, the depth and width of which doubled in summer as a result of melting snow and monsoon rainfall. Its waters bring fertile deposits, but the instability of the river has created and continues to create great difficulties for the development of land. In Sindh, where one of the largest cities of the Harappan civilization, Mohenjo-Daro, is located, the coastal areas were dominated by lush thickets of reeds and moisture-loving plants, then there were forests in which reptiles, rhinoceroses and elephants, tigers, wild boars, antelopes, and deer lived in ancient times. Until relatively recently, as mentioned above, these places abounded in game. The bearers of the Harappan culture depicted many representatives of the local fauna and flora on their products.

Another important territory of civilization was the Punjab, where the city that gave its name to the entire culture is located - Harappa. The natural situation here is close to that in Sindh; the flora and fauna differ little from those in Sind. Rain-fed farming is possible in the Islamabad area. Forests are common in the hills and mountains surrounding Punjab and surrounding areas. There is reason to believe that mobile forms of pastoralism played a significant role in ancient times in Punjab, especially in neighboring Rajasthan.

The geographical conditions of Gujarat are similar to those characteristic of Southern Sindh. Recently, signs of the existence of pre-Harappan settlements have been discovered here.

Population of the regions

Anthropological data, according to some researchers, indicate the heterogeneity of the anthropological type of the bearers of the Harappan civilization. Among them were representatives of the Mediterranean and Alpine types, according to some researchers, originating from the west, Mongoloids from mountainous regions and proto-Australoids, a supposed autochthonous population. At the same time, V.P. Alekseev believed that the main type was long-headed, narrow-faced Caucasians, dark-haired and dark-eyed, related to the population of the Mediterranean, the Caucasus, and Western Asia. It is possible that the diversity of funeral rites of Harappa itself, Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangan, Rupar, Lothal, and Balochistan speaks about the multi-ethnicity of the bearers of the Harappan culture. The appearance of corpses in urns (simultaneous with burials in Swat) in late Harappa is noteworthy.

Economy in the Harappan civilization

Due to the diversity of environmental conditions, the economy was dominated by two forms - agriculture and livestock raising and mobile cattle breeding; gathering and hunting, and the use of river and sea resources also played a role. According to B. Subbarao, in the early history of India three stages can be distinguished, with which the prevailing forms of economic management are associated -

• pre-Harappan - in the north-west there were cultures of settled farmers and pastoralists, in the rest of the territory - hunters and gatherers.
• Harappan - there was an urban civilization, communities of archaic farmers-pastoralists and hunter-gatherers.
• and post-Harappan - settled agricultural cultures spread widely, the area of ​​which included Central Hindustan, which felt the strong influence of the Harappan civilization.

Rain farming was practiced on lands that were sufficiently moistened by monsoon rains. In the foothills and mountain areas, stone embankments were built to retain water, and terraces were built to arrange crop areas. In river valleys in ancient times, although there is no definitive data on this, flood waters were accumulated by creating dams and dams. There is no information about the construction of canals, which is understandable due to thick layers of sediment. The main agricultural crops were wheat and barley, lentils and several types of peas, flax, as well as such an important crop as cotton. The main harvest is believed to be until the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. collected in summer (rabi). Later, in some areas, the kharif crop was also practiced, in which sowing was done in summer and harvesting in autumn. During this late period, millet introduced from the west and its varieties spread. They begin to cultivate rice - imprints have been found in Rangpur and Lothal; its cultivation is possible in Kalibangan. In western Uttar Pradesh, intermediate forms from wild to cultivated have been identified. An opinion was expressed about the beginning of rice cultivation here in the 5th millennium BC, somewhat earlier than in China. It is believed that at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. This important crop is becoming increasingly widespread in South Asia, although its origins remain unclear.

New forms of agriculture made it possible to move away from the characteristic Harappan practice of growing winter cereals, thanks to which new zones were introduced in the old territories, and lands in the east were also developed. By the end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. the livelihood base becomes more diverse than before. The resources of sea coasts and rivers are being exploited more widely; in some settlements, fish and shellfish were used more than other animal foods (for example, Balakot).

As already mentioned, the Neolithic inhabitants of the territories that were later covered by the Harappan civilization were engaged in animal husbandry. Different types of livestock predominated in different places; large cattle dominated on well-watered alluvial lands, although small ones were also bred. Outside the alluvium the picture was reversed. In the alluvial valleys, primarily in the Indus Valley, the number of cattle was very significant - in some places up to 75% of all animals used (Jalipur near Harappa).

Important changes occur at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC: in the settlement of Pirak in the northern part of the Kachi Valley, near Mehrgarh, not only the bones of a camel and a donkey were discovered, but also the oldest evidence of horse breeding in South Asia.

To cultivate the land, a primitive wooden plow was used, to which oxen were harnessed, but it is obvious that small areas of particularly soft soil were cultivated with a hoe, a tool such as a digging stick and a harrow. In Kalibangan, traces of cross-plowing were discovered - further evidence of highly developed agriculture. The use of crop rotation is possible. It is obvious that there are different ways of managing; there is reason to believe that they played a complementary role. At the same time, there is no data on how relations between, for example, mainly fishermen and farmers or livestock breeders were regulated.

Settlements of the Harappan civilization

Studying the dynamics of the spread of the Harappan culture is difficult due to the low availability of early strata. Systems of interconnected settlements of different sizes and functions are also difficult to identify due to the concealment of many settlements, primarily small ones, under layers of sediment. Despite the difficulties of studying settlement dynamics, some progress has been achieved in this area. Thus, it is believed that more than a third of the settlements of the Amri culture in Sindh were abandoned during the Harappan time, but the rest continued to exist in the southwestern part.

Most settlements are small, from 0.5 to several hectares, these are rural settlements. The population was mainly rural. Currently, more than 1000 settlements have been discovered. There are four known large settlements (besides the two long-known ones, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, Ganveriwala and Rakhi-garhi in Punjab), the area of ​​which amounts to many tens of hectares, although the exact inhabited territory can be difficult to determine. Thus, Hill DK, excavated in Mohenjo-Daro, has an area of ​​26 hectares, while the total area is determined to be 80 and even 260 hectares, Hill E in Harappa is 15 hectares, although there are other hills here.

For a number of large settlements, a three-part structure was revealed - the parts received the conventional names “citadel”, “middle city” and “lower city”. A fourth development area has also been discovered in Dholavira. Both large and some relatively small settlements had perimeter walls surrounding a sub-rectangular area. They were built from baked bricks and adobe (in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and some other settlements), stone and other available materials. It is assumed that the main purpose of the bypass walls was not defensive; they were supposed to serve as a means of protection against floods. Perhaps their construction was a consequence of the desire to limit the habitat of certain social organisms. Thus, in Banawali, Surkotada and Kalibangan, the territory was divided into two parts by a wall. There is an opinion that fortification itself was necessary only on the outskirts of Harappan territory, at outposts created on foreign lands. The regular development of Harappan settlements sharply distinguishes them from the chaotic layout of cities of other civilizations of the Ancient East and can contribute to the reconstruction of the features of social organization, which is still far from clear.

In conditions favorable for study, it is possible to establish that the settlements were located in groups - “clusters”. The paucity of settlements in the vicinity of Harappa is surprising. A cluster of settlements was discovered 200 km south of Harappa, near Fort Abbas. The early Harappan settlement of Gomanwala had an area of ​​27.3 hectares, perhaps almost the same as contemporary Harappa. Another cluster was discovered upstream of the Ghaggar in Rajasthan - these are Kalibangan, Siswal, Banavali, etc.; Pre-Harappan layers were also exposed here (the Sothi-Kalibangan complex, which is similar to Kot Diji). With the beginning of Harappa, significant changes occurred in the Hakra-Ghaggar system: the number of settlements quadrupled and reached 174. In the cluster at Fort Derawar, the largest was Ganveriwala (81.5 hectares), located 300 km from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.

320 km from Harappa, on Drshadvati, there is a settlement called Rakhigarhi, the area of ​​which is supposed to be 80 hectares, although it has not been excavated. In Gujarat, Harappan settlements are small. In late Harappa there were more than 150 settlements here, many of them small and seasonal. The coastal Lothal stands out - a supposed port that carried out trade in copper, carnelian, steatite, shells, maintaining connections with hunting-gathering communities and, perhaps, those who were engaged in specialized cattle breeding.

Recently, it has been suggested that on the territory of the Harappan civilization from the period preceding it to the later period, there were 7 or 8 large settlements - “capitals”, surrounded by towns and villages. In the strict sense, these were not central settlements, since they could also be located in peripheral territories, establishing contacts between zones that were different in ecological and economic terms.

Settlement of Mohenjo-Daro

It is advisable to consider the features of large settlements using the example of the long-studied Mohenjo-Daro. Its exact dimensions are unknown due to accumulated sediments, but it is significant that traces of buildings were found 2 km from the supposed city border. During the heyday, the maximum number of inhabitants is determined to be 35-40 thousand people. The thickness of the cultural layer is very significant; fragments of clay vessels were found at a depth of 16 to 20 m from the level of the modern surface, while the mainland was not reached. And now the ancient division of the city into two parts is clearly visible - the “citadel” and the “lower city”, separated by an undeveloped area. The building materials were burnt and mud brick and wood. In all likelihood, baked brick was used because of its ability to resist the destructive effects of moisture.

The “citadel” structures were located on a five-meter brick platform. Two large structures of unclear purpose were excavated here, which were most likely intended for meetings (the assumption that one of them could have been the residence of a high-ranking official is unlikely). One of them, with an area of ​​70x22 m. with thick walls, had a vestibule, the other had a hall with an area of ​​about 900 sq. m. m. - was divided into four parts by rows of pillars.

The foundation of the structure, the upper part of which was wooden, was also discovered here. According to popular belief, it was extensive, with an area of ​​1350 square meters. m., a public granary, at the base of which there are deep ventilation channels. A similar granary was discovered in Harappa at the foot of the “citadel”; here its area is 800 sq. m.

Finally, on the “citadel” there was a “large pool”, built later than other buildings. Its area is 11.70 × 6.90 m, depth - 2.40 m. Wooden stairs coated with bitumen led to it from the narrow sides. For waterproofing, lime and bitumen coating was made. The pool was filled from a nearby well and emptied using a chute in one of the walls. It was surrounded by a gallery, from which the pillars have been preserved. It is believed that it could have served for ritual ablutions, to which great importance was attached. Evidence of this is the existence of “bathrooms” in residential buildings.

“Lower Town” was occupied by residential development. The blocks of houses were separated by straight streets and alleys located at right angles. The significant height of the walls - up to 6 m - gave rise to the now rejected opinion that the houses were not one-story: the height of the walls, as well as the great depth of the regularly located wells (one for every three houses), are the result of reconstruction.

Premises with flat ceilings were grouped around courtyards; the area of ​​the largest block, which consisted of two parts connected by a covered passage, was 1400 sq.m.; there is no basis to judge that it belongs to a high-ranking official. In general, the area of ​​the houses reached 355 square meters. m, and they consisted of 5-9 rooms.

Landscaping was unusually developed for antiquity. Bathrooms and toilets are found in the houses. Under the pavements there were sewer channels lined with baked bricks, and settling tanks were located at a certain distance from each other.

Relatively recent further investigations of Mohenjo-Daro have made it possible to trace changes in the principles of its development. During the developed Harappan period, it was cramped, with wide axial streets. The houses were both small and large, their plans varied. No traces of craft activity were found. Later, the number of small buildings increases, and the layout becomes more unified. The craft zone is approaching the residential zone. Finally, at the late stage of civilization, dwellings form isolated groups, and traces of handicraft production are discovered. The sewer system is falling into disrepair, which indicates a crisis in the organization of urban life.

Crafts and art

For the traditional culture of antiquity, which includes the Harappan culture, the division into craft and art is hardly legitimate. The creations of artisans, whether they were intended for everyday life or for rituals, are often marked by high skill. At the same time, among the things of each category there are better and worse made ones, and there are also rough ones, the manufacture of which did not require great skill. Differences in the quality of products indicate the existence of high-class professionals, stone carvers, jewelers, and sculptors. In different settlements, workshops were discovered where they made dishes, jewelry (including from shells), etc. The works of Harappan craftsmen are distinguished by their deep originality, and attempts to find analogies for them in other regions, in particular in Mesopotamia, as a rule, come down to a small number of probable imports from the Indus Valley and difficult to prove similarities of individual pictorial motifs.

Tools

So, the production of tools, utensils, and building materials was highly developed and specialized. One of the important indicators is the level of metalworking. The paucity of weapons is noteworthy, although copper and bronze daggers and knives, arrowheads and spearheads were found. Labor tools are largely associated with wood processing (axes, chisels, adzes) and with household chores (needles, piercing tools). Vessels were made from copper and silver, and rarely lead. Casting in open molds, cold and hot forging were known; Some items were cast using the lost wax technique. Alloys of copper with arsenic, lead and tin were used, and a large percentage - about 30 - of tin bronzes is noteworthy. Jewelry (bracelets and beads) was made from stone, shells, copper, silver, and rarely gold. Bracelets, as in later times, were worn a lot; in all likelihood, this custom was of a ritual nature. In special cases, vessels made of copper and even gold were used.

Stone tools have not gone out of use either, and over time the variety of types decreases, the quality of raw materials and processing technology increases. Vessels were made from soft varieties of stone, including shaped ones, which had a ritual purpose, and from various minerals - beads, seals. Materials for both metal and stone products were often delivered from afar.

Ceramics

Another indicator of a highly developed craft is ceramic production. The dishes were made on a rapid rotation wheel and fired in two-tier furnaces. The shapes are varied and generally standard - bowls, goblets, dishes, braziers, vessels with a pointed bottom and stands, vessels for making dairy products. The tradition of painting vessels is preserved, although it is dying out: black painting on a red background, geometric and figurative - images of animals, plants, fish. Although the pottery is of good quality, the vessels are heavy and differ from the more elegant products of pre-Harappan times, which happens in the ceramic production of not only ancient cultures when it becomes widespread.

Women's figurines were sculpted from clay, and less often, men's figurines, including characters in horned headdresses. They are undoubtedly associated with mythological ideas and rituals. These figurines are quite conventional, with molded details depicting body parts and numerous decorations. Very expressive figurines of bulls, sometimes harnessed to carts, and wild and domestic animals were made from clay and stone. At least some of them could have been toys.

Small stone and metal sculptures of men and women are distinguished by their great resemblance to life, which well convey the anthropological type of at least part of the bearers of the Harappan civilization. The most famous is a fragment of a sculptural image of a bearded man in a diadem, in a robe decorated with relief trefoils. The squinting of his eyes resembles the position of the eyelids of a meditating person.

Making stamps

The real masterpieces were stamp seals made mainly from soapstone, intended, as the found prints show, for sealing goods, although it is very likely that they were also perceived as amulets and talismans. They are flat, square or rectangular, with a protrusion with a hole on the back. A few samples are round; There are practically no cylinder seals, so characteristic of Mesopotamia, Iran and other regions of Western Asia. As on the vessels, they depicted mainly plants and animals (“tur”, the so-called unicorn, humpbacked bull, tiger, crocodile, snakes, fantastic polymorphic creatures). In Mohenjo-Daro there are about 75% of such images. The images are in-depth, executed with great skill and understanding of body shapes, rendered close to life. As a rule, animals are depicted standing calmly near objects, which are interpreted as feeders or conventional symbols. In addition, samples were found with images of anthropomorphic male and female creatures in various poses, including those reminiscent of yogic ones. They are represented by participants in rituals. In addition to the image, a short inscription could be placed on the seals. There are seals with conventional geometric shapes.

The images on the seals are associated with holidays and rituals - feeding an animal, treating a snake, worshiping a tree in whose branches a goddess could be depicted, the marriage of gods in anthropomorphic and zoomorphic form. Judging by the available materials, the goddess played a major role in marriage myths. Images similar to those applied to seals are found on copper plates of unknown purpose. There were prismatic stone and clay objects, the belonging of which to the category of seals is questioned; perhaps they played the role of amulets. Seals could serve as signs of ownership, but there is no doubt that they also served ritual purposes, they were something like amulets, and the images on them contain information about mythological ideas and rituals. Research by W.F. Vogt of the seals of Mohenjo-Daro did not provide grounds for judging social differentiation among the population.

It is on the study of seals and related products that work on deciphering proto-Indian writing is based.

Writing and language

The study of the writing system and language of the Harappan texts has not yet been completed; Domestic researchers played a significant role in the research (a group led by Yu.V. Knorozov). The conclusions they reached are presented here based on the work of M.F. Albedil “Proto-Indian civilization. Essays on Culture" (Moscow, 1994). The difficulty of understanding the texts lies in the fact that they are written in an unknown script in an unknown language, and there are no bilinguals. About 3000 texts are known, lapidary (mostly 5-6 characters) and monotonous. The letter was hieroglyphic (about 400 characters), written from right to left. It is believed that the texts were of a sacred nature.

It turned out that early texts were written on stone plates, then on stone, and less often metal seals. The existence of cursive writing is not ruled out. When interpreting the signs, pictograms of the modern peoples of India, primarily the Dravidian-speaking ones, were used.

The researchers believe they have deciphered the general meaning of most of the inscriptions and identified the formal structure of the grammatical system. Comparison with the structure of languages ​​hypothetically existing in the Indus Valley led to the exclusion of all but Dravidian. At the same time, scientists consider it unacceptable to mechanically extrapolate the phonetics, grammar and vocabulary of historically recorded languages ​​into Proto-Indian. Reliance is placed on the study of the texts themselves, and the Dravidian elements are used as a “correction factor”. Translation is based on the semantic interpretation of the sign, which is determined by the method of positional statistics. They also turned to Sanskrit, as a result of which it was possible to identify the correspondence of 60 astronomical and calendar names and the structural correspondence in the names of the years of the 60-year chronological cycle of Jupiter, known only in the Sanskrit version.

It is assumed that the text block consisted of the name of the owner of the seal in a respectful form, explanations of a calendar and chronological nature and an indication of the period of validity of the seal. There is an assumption that the seals of officials belonged to them temporarily, for a certain period.

Judging by the deciphering of the texts, the solar agricultural year began with the autumn equinox. There were 12 months in a year, the names of which reflected natural phenomena; “micro-seasons” were distinguished. The astronomical year was based on four fixed points - the solstices and equinoxes. New moons and full moons were revered. The symbol of the winter solstice, the beginning of the year, is believed to have been the tour. There were several subsystems of time reckoning - lunar (hunting-gatherer), solar (agricultural), state (civil) and priestly. In addition, there were calendar cycles - 5-, 12-, 60-year; they had symbolic designations. These are the assumptions of domestic researchers of proto-Indian texts.

The problem of exchange and trade

For a long time, in the science of antiquity there was an idea of ​​greater or lesser isolation and self-sufficiency of ancient social formations, in particular the Harappan ones. Thus, W. Ferservice wrote that trade played a large role in Sumer, a somewhat smaller role in Egypt, and the Harappan civilization was in a state of isolation and trade relations were random, not systematic. Later, in the 70s of the 20th century, the attitude towards the role of exchange and trade in antiquity changed dramatically, especially in foreign science. Reconstructions of not only the economy, but also the social structure of ancient societies that were unliterate or did not have informative written texts began to be carried out taking into account the role of exchange, not at the local level, but over long distances. Now some researchers attach great importance to the role of trade in the formation and existence of the Harappan civilization. In particular, a number of Indian scholars believe that traders played a large role in the formation of cities and ideological ideas, and they consider the disruption of trade with countries west of Harappa to be the reason for the decline of cities. Researchers (including K.N. Dikshit) associate the decline of trade in the later period with the weakening of central power, as a result of which trade routes became unsafe. The change in the political situation in Mesopotamia and the rise to power of Hammurabi caused the weakening of the cities of Southern Mesopotamia, and trade routes began to be reoriented to the west, to Anatolia and the Mediterranean. Cyprus became the source of copper, and not, as before, Oman and its neighboring territories.

Trade with Western countries

The existence of connections between the bearers of the Harappan civilization and their close and distant neighbors cannot be doubted, primarily because the Indus Valley, its indigenous territory, like Mesopotamia, is poor in the minerals that people needed and used. Minerals and shells came from the subcontinent and were widely used in various industries. Copper was delivered from more distant areas (its deposits were exploited in Iran, in particular in Kerman, and Afghanistan) and gold. Tin, as currently available information allows us to judge, came from Central Asia (one of the supposed sources is the Fergana Valley, the other is located in the southwest of Afghanistan), lapis lazuli - from Badakhshan (if not from the Chagai Mountains), turquoise - from Iran. Already in Neolithic Mehrgarh, connections with Iran are clearly visible, from where widely used minerals were delivered - crystalline gypsum (“alabaster” of archaeological literature) and steatite. The appearance of Late Harappan settlements in the foothills of the Himalayas may be connected precisely with the need of civilization for mineral raw materials - in one of the settlements traces of the production of various beads were found, clearly intended for exchange.

Already at the end of the 4th millennium BC. the names of southern countries began to appear in Mesopotamian texts - Dilmun, Magan, Meluhha. There have been and continue to be debates about their localization in science. Probably during the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. they meant different territories. However, it is clear that Dilmun and Magan were intermediate between Mesopotamia and Meluhha - the supposed Indus Valley. Dilmun (Bahrain) always played an intermediary role, while the real sources of the much-valued copper, wood, and minerals were not always known to the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, and their source could be considered the point where they received them - Dilmun. Thanks to discoveries in recent years, it has become clear that Oman was one of the important suppliers of copper to Mesopotamia. Standard copper ingots weighing about 6 kg are typical of finds of this kind from Syria to Lothal. It is noteworthy that the peak of information about this exchange occurs during the heyday of Harappa, around the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. Harappan type seals have been found in Ur, Umma, Nippur, Tell Asmara, on the Persian Gulf Islands, Bahrain and Failak, on the coast of the Arabian Sea. An inscription in Harappan script was discovered in Oman. The carriers of another culture, kulli, were also associated with the western regions - products typical of it were found in Abu Dhabi.

In Lagash at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. lived Harappan traders with their families. There have also been suggestions about the existence of Mesopotamian colonies on the territory of Harappa, although direct data on this matter is still insufficient. Everyone is surprised by the extremely small number of things characteristic of the Mesopotamian civilization on Harappan territory. This is usually attributed to the fact that they could be made from short-lived materials; Fabrics are mentioned among the likely imports. Perhaps the absence of foreign things is a consequence of the Harappans’ strong commitment to their traditions: researchers recall that in the houses of Indian merchants in the 19th century. It was rare to find things of foreign origin.

The sea route was most likely used - there are known images of sailing ships that were built from wood and reeds. The voyage was coastal, the sailors did not lose sight of the shore. There is an opinion, although not shared by all researchers, that the port was Lothal in Gujarat, where a structure similar to a dock was discovered. A seal typical of the Persian Gulf region was found at Lothal.

Trade with the Nordic countries

Exchange with nearby territories could be direct, and with distant ones - indirect. At the same time, the discovery of a real Harappan colony in Northern Afghanistan, near the confluence of Kokchi and Amu Darya, is symptomatic. It is believed that Shortugai was a “trading point” on the route connecting Harappa with the territory of Turkmenistan and other neighboring regions. One of the likely objects of interest of the “Harappans” is lapis lazuli, and possibly tin. The inhabitants of Shortugay brought lentils and sesame from India; the local crops they cultivated were grapes, wheat, rye and alfalfa; they raised zebu and buffalo from their native places. At the settlements of the Anau culture of Southern Turkmenistan, seals of the Harappan type, ivory products were discovered, and there are signs characteristic of Harappan products in the shapes and decoration of ceramic vessels.

Land routes ran north through mountain passes, bypassing the Dashte Lut desert into the Diyala valley, along river valleys within their territory, possibly along the coast - Harappan settlements were found on the Makran coast. It is unlikely that carts drawn by oxen, models of which made of clay and bronze were found in different settlements, were used for long journeys. But already in the period of the developed Harappa, they began to use Bactrian camels, which are believed to have been domesticated in Central Asia, data on which were obtained in Southern Turkmenistan, where the camel, according to existing assumptions, was domesticated back in the 4th millennium BC. In exchange operations, they used mainly cubic stone weights weighing 8, 16, 32, 64, 160, 200, 320, 640, 1600, 3200, 6400, 8000 g. Conical, spherical, and barrel-shaped weights were also used. Rulers with measuring divisions were also used.

The question of the place of foreign trade in the economic life of the Harappans remains debatable. Was it an essential or peripheral part of the economy? Was it a more or less regular exchange or was it a planned trade? How were the products of internal exchange realized in it? Was the trade directed by "government administrators" or professional agents?

As with the study of other areas of Harappan culture, the answer to these questions depends on the reconstruction of the social order as a whole, the understanding of which is far from clear. Nevertheless, it is hardly justified to conclude that trade and production of goods differed little from modern ones.

Social structure

Researchers of large Harappan settlements, from the moment their structure became clear, expressed, on the basis of the division of these settlements into two or more parts, an assumption about the division of society into the nobility - the inhabitants of the “citadels” and the rest of the population. Some researchers interpret the inscriptions on clay bracelets as titles. M. Wheeler saw an analogy to the social organization of Harappa in the city-states of Mesopotamia, and considered the idea of ​​cities brought from Sumer. Many scholars have written about the Harappan "empire" with centralized power and an exploited rural population. They also assumed the existence of several classes - an oligarchy, warriors, traders and artisans (K.N. Dikshit), rulers, farmers-traders, workers (B.B. Lal), to which some added slaves. M.F. Albedil wrote about the possibility of a highly centralized political structure in proto-Indian society. At the same time, it allowed for a strong role for local centers, in which central power was partially duplicated locally. Some researchers rightly focus attention on the specifics of Harappan society, in particular on the place of the priesthood in public life, which was different than in Mesopotamia with its organized temple households. Nevertheless, there are reasons to believe that at least at some stages, especially during the developed Harappan period, there could have been a strong ruling elite consisting of priests. Based on the decipherment of documents of proto-Indian writing proposed in Russian science, one can assume the functioning of temples and priesthood and even the presence of political leaders.

So, the data does not allow us to draw direct parallels between the social organization of Mesopotamia or Elam and that of the bearers of the Harappan civilization. Until now, despite a significant volume of excavations, no signs of the existence of rulers and individuals who concentrated in their hands significant material values, deposited, in particular, in burials, as was the case in Mesopotamia or Egypt, have been discovered. The weak manifestation of the military function in society is symptomatic. Apparently, significant wealth was not concentrated in the temples. Business documents were not found or were not identified.

At the same time, there are facts indicating the existence of property inequality, the presence in society of groups that occupied different social positions and performed different functions. The accumulation of values ​​is suggested, in particular, by treasures discovered in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and other places. W. Ferservis, taking into account the peculiarities of the Harappan civilization, drew attention to the large number of short-term settlements and the significant role of livestock breeding, which could act as a symbol of wealth. Settlements in a particular area played different roles - among them were predominantly agricultural ones and those in which craft production and exchange predominated. These settlements were interconnected. He suggested that the form of organization was not a city-state or a single state, but chiefdoms. According to his hypothesis, the Harappan chiefdoms were based on kinship ties and were similar to those known in Hawaii, Northwest America, Southeast Asia and West Africa.

The degree of development of cities, crafts and economy, the formation of its specialized forms, agriculture and cattle breeding implied the need to regulate relations between representatives of different spheres of activity. The circulation of “primitive values”, traced, in particular, through the example of lapis lazuli products, led other researchers to the assumption of the formation of formations such as chiefdoms already at the early stage of Harappa. In the future, the emergence of a state is assumed in which power was no longer associated with genealogical rank, and relations of production were separated from relations based on kinship. The use of the concept of chiefdom to reconstruct the social structure of pre-state societies in the East has raised objections. As an alternative, another model was proposed, based on the study of acephalous societies of the Eastern Himalayas (in Russian science, its development belongs to Yu.E. Berezkin). Farm type: irrigated agriculture and cattle breeding. Signs of such societies, some of which can be discerned in archaeological material, are expressed in the appearance of settlements. These are closely built-up villages without monumental architecture with many small sanctuaries, the existence of differences in property status that can be overcome thanks to a special institution of redistribution such as the potlatch, specialized crafts, trade exchange, obtaining exotic prestigious things through trade over long distances. These are not chiefdoms, but neither are they groups of closed village communities. At the same time, community and clan institutions were weak, and the individual, thanks to individual ownership of the means of production, was independent. Social life is regulated during mass ceremonies and celebrations, during which complex systems of relations developed, covering the entire area of ​​residence of the ethnic group. In the villages there were councils of respected men. It cannot be ruled out that the society of the Harappan civilization without a layer of elite and with public buildings that required relatively little labor could have been more likely to be similar to those described, but on a larger scale. It should be noted that before and, what is especially noteworthy, now, with the advent of new data, opinions are being expressed about the existence of the state.

Religious and mythological ideas and rituals

It is difficult to judge the myths, beliefs, rituals, as well as the spiritual life of the “Harappans” in general, primarily due to the low information content of written monuments, even if we recognize the accuracy of their interpretation. The sources are primarily images on seals and other things, samples of clay, stone, and metal sculpture, traces of rituals. Temples - one of the main evidence of the veneration of the gods - did not exist or are not identified. One of the grounds for reconstructions is a comparison of known data with the ideas and rituals of the supposed historical successors of the bearers of the Harappan civilization or, as many researchers are inclined to think, the Dravidian-speaking peoples of India related to them in language.

Animals depicted on seals and metal plates: humpbacked Indian bull, gaur bull, buffalo, an animal similar to a bull, but depicted with one horn (“unicorn”), tiger, rhinoceros, crocodile, elephant, rarely a rabbit, birds, fantastic multi-headed animals, according to domestic researchers, served as symbols, some of them - cardinal directions and/or seasons. Trees were also depicted - peepal, ashwattha. The tree is sometimes depicted rising from a ring-shaped enclosure - it probably served as an object of worship, embodying the idea of ​​a “world tree” (enclosures of this appearance were discovered during excavations). In later times, revered trees were decorated, in particular, in order to have children. Sacrificial rituals played an important role.

A seal depicting a horned figure, possibly a yogi, either proto-Shiva or Pashuvati (lord of animals).

There are known images of anthropomorphic female and male creatures, found, in particular, in scenes of their worship. One seal depicts a horned male figure, whose pose, according to J. Marshall, resembles that in which Shiva was depicted. E. Düring Kaspers pointed to images of a horned and tailed character with a bow, which, in her opinion, evidenced the existence of hunting rituals. Female creatures, images of which are also known in small plastic works, are usually associated with images of “mother goddesses”. Apparently, there were many such mythological creatures; they were, at least in part, associated with fertility cults and ideas about life and death. Among the gods, they suggest the predecessors of Skanda, creator gods, spirits - the predecessors of the Yakshas, ​​Gandharvas, Apsaras. There were rituals of sacred marriage, perhaps performed seasonally.

Research by Yu.V. Knorozova, M.F. Albedil and other domestic scientists suggest the veneration of celestial bodies based on deep knowledge of astronomy and observations of natural phenomena. Famous sculptures of men and women most likely depicted priests and performers of ritual dances. There is evidence that rituals were carried out in open courtyards; in Kalibangan, on the “citadel”, something like fire altars was discovered near the platform. Podiums with signs of cattle sacrifices were found. It is very likely that shamanic-type rituals and corresponding ideas exist. The images of bull hunters may be associated with ancient ideas inherent in hunters; The image of people jumping over a buffalo is interesting (W. Ferservis suggested the possibility of Cretan influence on this image made in an unusual linear style, which requires new confirmation). Cult objects were conical and cylindrical stones - something like lingas and ring-shaped objects - possible predecessors of the yoni.

Many researchers have no doubt about the profound influence of the religious practices and ideas of the bearers of the Harappan culture on the later ones brought by the Aryans. These include, in particular, the practice of yoga.

In general, the interpretation of the evidence of the Harappan religion, as well as the social system, depends on the position of the researcher:

• if we assume that society was organized hierarchically, and civilization was a holistic entity, we can talk about a pantheon, a priesthood with a hierarchy, etc.;
• if we assume that the organization of society was archaic, then we will have to talk about the diversity of ideas and religious life, even if they have a certain commonality.

Disappearance of the Harappan civilization

According to tradition, there are two reasons why the Harappan civilization could have disappeared -

• change in climatic conditions, and, as a consequence, change in the course of the Indus
• the arrival of other ethnic groups in the Indus Valley, and in particular the Aryans.

You can read in more detail what could have happened in.

Be that as it may, the role of the Harappan civilization in the history of India is still truly difficult to determine, although, following many researchers, it can be regarded as extremely important. Among the preserved heritage there are forms of traditional way of life, social structure, a significant array of religious ideas and rituals. It is assumed that the four-varna division and the caste system were formed under the influence of non-Aryan ethnocultural substrates.

The civilization that arose in the Indus River Valley and surrounding areas is the third oldest, but least studied of all early civilizations. Its writing has not yet been deciphered, and therefore extremely little is known about its internal structure and culture. It quickly declined after 1750 BC, leaving little as a legacy for subsequent communities and states. Of all the early civilizations, it lasted the shortest period of time, and its heyday probably lasted no more than three centuries after 2300 BC.

The first evidence of agriculture in the Indus Valley dates back to 6000 BC. The main crops were wheat and barley - most likely adopted from villages in southwest Asia. In addition to these, peas, lentils and dates were grown here. The main crop was cotton - this is the first place in the world where it was regularly cultivated.

Among the animals kept here were humpbacked cows, bulls and pigs - apparently domesticated local species. Sheep and goats, the main domestic animals of Southwest Asia, were not of great importance in the Indus Valley. From about 4000 BC, as the population grew, mud brick villages began to be built throughout the valley and the culture became homogeneous. The main problem for the early farmers was that the Indus, fed by water from the Himalayas, flooded large areas of the valley from June to September and changed its course frequently. From 3000 BC Extensive work was carried out to retain flood water and irrigate adjacent fields. When the waters subsided, wheat and barley were planted and harvested in the spring. The result of increased irrigated land and flood control was an increase in food surpluses, leading to rapid political and social development from 2600 BC. and to the emergence of a highly developed state in one, maximum two centuries.

Map 9. Indus Valley Civilization

Very little is known about the process that led to the emergence of this civilization and about its nature. Neither the names of the rulers nor even the names of the cities have been preserved. There were two cities - one at the excavation site in Mohenjo-Daro in the south, the other in Harappa in the north. At their height, their population may have numbered 30,000 to 50,000 (roughly the size of Uruk). However, in the entire 300,000 square miles of the Indus Valley, these were the only settlements of this size. The two cities appear to have been built according to the same plan. To the west was the main group of public buildings, each oriented north-south. In the east, in the “lower city,” there were mainly residential areas. The citadel was surrounded by a brick wall, the only one in the entire city. The streets were laid out according to a plan, and the buildings were built of brick according to a single pattern. Throughout the valley there was a single system of weights and measures, and there was also uniformity in artistic and religious motifs. All these features indicate a high degree of unity of the society that inhabited the Indus Valley.

The Indus Valley Civilization was at the center of an extensive web of trade connections. Gold was delivered from Central India, silver from Iran, copper from Rajasthan. Several colonies and trading posts were founded. Some of them were located inside the country on strategically important roads leading to Central Asia. Others controlled access to major resources, such as timber in the Hindu Kush Mountains. The strong influence of this civilization is demonstrated by the fact that it maintained a trading colony at Shortugai, the only known deposit of lapis lazuli, on the Oxus River, 450 miles from the nearest settlement in the Indus Valley.

Trade connections extended even further to the north, to the Kopetdag mountains and Altyn-Tepe on the Caspian Sea. It was a city of 7,500 people surrounded by a wall 35 feet thick. The city, with a large artisans' quarter, had 50 kilns. He engaged in regular trade with the Indus Valley.

In addition to the above, there were also settlements along the sea trade routes, such as Lothal in the depths of the Gulf of Cambay and several fortifications on the Makran coast to the west. These fortifications played an important role in trade with Mesopotamia, which developed from around 2600 BC, when ships began to sail from the Persian Gulf along the Makran coast. In Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley was known as "Melukhha". The high level of development of trade is confirmed by the fact that special seals made only in Bahrain were discovered in the Indus Valley. Mesopotamia hosted a small colony of valley interpreters and also maintained a special village for merchants.

The Indus Valley civilization quickly declined around 1700 BC. There were several reasons for the decline. Just as in Mesopotamia, irrigating land in an unsuitable environment with high temperatures and poor soil drainage led to salinization and falling yields. In addition to this, the annual floods of the Indus appear to have been difficult to control. More importantly, unlike Mesopotamia, the clay bricks used here were not fired in the sun, but in wood-burning kilns. Over several centuries, the forests in the valley were destroyed - which, in turn, significantly increased soil erosion, salinization of drainage channels and irrigation ditches.

It must be assumed that all these factors led to the internal weakening of the state and the inability to support the complex community that had already emerged. The result of all this was conquest by newcomers - probably groups of hunters from nearby areas. The cities and "civilization" in this area disappeared. A revival - as happened in Egypt and Mesopotamia - did not follow. When cities reappeared in India almost a thousand years later, it was in the Ganges Valley, in the south and east. It was this area that remained the “heart” of the various states and empires that arose in Northern India.

The oldest Eneolithic settlements have so far been discovered on the western edge of the Indus Valley. Although the climate in North-West India in the IV-III millennia BC. e. was wetter than at the present time, yet the presence of water sources for artificial irrigation, apparently, was already decisive for the founding of these settlements: as a rule, they were located near mountain rivers and streams when they entered the plain; here the waters were apparently intercepted by dams and sent to the fields.

By the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e. In these relatively favorably located areas, agriculture became an important occupation for the population, but cattle breeding also played an important role. The most convenient for farming in the climatic conditions of India were river valleys, which were flooded during the rainy season. With further improvement of tools, the gradual development of these valleys becomes possible. The Indus Valley was the first to be developed. It was here that pockets of relatively developed agricultural culture arose, because here the opportunities for the development of productive forces turned out to be the most favorable. Under the new conditions, property and then social inequality arose, which led to the disintegration of the primitive communal system, the emergence of classes and the emergence of the state.

Excavations in the Indus Valley have shown that here already in the III-II millennia BC. e. there was a vibrant and distinctive civilization. In the 20s of the XX century. Several urban-type settlements were discovered here, having a number of similar features. The culture of these settlements was called the Harappan culture, after the settlement in the Punjab province, near which the first of these urban settlements was discovered. Excavations were also carried out in Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh province), the archaeological study of which gave the most significant results.

The heyday of the Harappan culture dates back to the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. The previous stages of its development are almost unknown, since the lower cultural layers of the main settlements have not yet been explored. We can only assume that by the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. The process of economic development of the Indus Valley has already begun.

Excavations have revealed large quantities of copper and bronze tools, but iron products have not been found even in the upper layers of the settlements of the Harappan culture. Copper and bronze in ancient India, as well as in other countries, could not completely replace stone, which continued to be widely used for the manufacture of tools (knives, grain graters), weapons (clubs), weights, vessels and other household items. Among the metal tools found were bronze and copper axes, sickles, saws, chisels, knives, razors, fish hooks, etc.; Weapon items include swords, daggers, arrowheads and spearheads. It is possible that some of these products were brought here, but it is precisely established that, for example, in Mohenjo-Daro, hot and cold metal processing was at a fairly high level. Excavations have shown that the inhabitants of the settlements of the Harappan culture knew lead and knew how to make products from gold and silver, using soldering.

Agriculture was one of the main occupations of the population and was relatively developed. As some researchers suggest, when plowing, a light plow with a flint share or a plow was used - a simple log with a strong branch, although the hoe was still probably the most common agricultural tool. Buffaloes and zebu began to be used as draft animals. Of the cereal crops, wheat, barley and possibly rice were known; from oilseeds - sesame (sesame); from garden vegetables - melon; from fruit trees - date palm. Ancient Indians used fiber from cultivated cotton; it is likely that they were the first in the world to grow it in their fields.

It is difficult to say to what extent artificial irrigation was developed at that time. Traces of irrigation structures at the settlements of the Harappan culture have not yet been discovered.

Cattle breeding, along with agriculture, was important in the economy of the ancient inhabitants of the Indus Valley. In addition to the already mentioned buffalos and zebu, bones of sheep, pigs, goats were found during excavations, and horse bones were also found in the upper layers. There is reason to believe that the Indians at that time already knew how to tame elephants. Fishing played a significant role in the economy. Hunting continued to provide some assistance.

The craft has achieved significant development. Along with the metal processing already mentioned, spinning and weaving developed. The Indus Valley people were the first in the world to spin and weave cotton; During excavations in one of the settlements, a piece of cotton fabric was discovered. Pottery was highly developed for that time; The pottery found during excavations was made on a potter's wheel, most of it was well fired, painted and covered with ornaments. Many spindle whorls, pottery pipes, children's toys, etc. were also found made from baked clay. Jewelry from excavations gives an idea of ​​the art of ancient Indian craftsmen in processing precious metals and making jewelry from precious and semi-precious stones. A number of finds suggest that the art of stone and ivory carvers is relatively high.

The presence of a large number of stone weights, the source material for which was rocks of stone, metals, and sea shells unknown in the area, as well as finds of objects not produced locally, show that the inhabitants of the settlements of the Harappan culture maintained trade relations with other regions of India and even with other countries (primarily with Mesopotamia and Elam), and trade routes passed not only by land, but also by sea. This also contributed to the exchange of cultural achievements. Researchers have established many facts about the cultural closeness of ancient India with other countries, in particular with Sumer.

Cities and culture

The art of construction has reached a high level. Surrounded by powerful walls, the settlements of the Harappan culture sometimes occupied an area of ​​hundreds of hectares. The main streets of the cities - straight and quite wide, with regularly located houses - intersected at right angles. The buildings, usually two-story, sometimes covering hundreds of square meters, were built from baked bricks. They were devoid of architectural decoration, did not have windows facing the street, but were relatively well-appointed, had rooms for ablutions, often a separate well and sewerage facilities. A city-wide sewerage system was discovered in Mohenjo-Daro, which is the most advanced of all sewerage systems known to us at that time in the cities of the ancient East. It had main canals, settling tanks, and drains for draining rainwater.

All these structures were carefully thought out and perfectly executed. During the excavations, many skillfully constructed, brick-lined wells were found, which indicates a well-established water supply. A well-preserved public ablution pool was discovered in Mohenjo-Daro, the very advanced design of which suggests that its builders had extensive experience in constructing such structures.

The culture of the population of these urban settlements has reached significant development. This is indicated, in particular, by the relatively high level of fine arts and artistic crafts. Excavations have uncovered elaborate figurines made from clay, soft stone and bronze. Examples of fine artistic work are seal-amulets carved from soapstone (wen stone), ivory, and also made from copper and clay. More than 2 thousand such seals have been found. They are of particular interest because many of them have inscriptions made in a kind of hieroglyphic writing. The same kind of inscriptions are found on some metal objects. These examples of ancient Indian writing resemble the earliest writing of the Sumerians and other ancient peoples. The inscriptions from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa have attracted the attention of many scientists, however, so far attempts to decipher them have not been successful. It is very likely that writing was quite widespread, and only a few examples of it have reached us, since writing materials such as tree bark, palm leaves, leather, and fabrics could not survive to this day in the specific climatic conditions of India. A large number of different weights and a fragment of a measuring ruler made from a shell with very precisely marked divisions suggest that the basic unit of weight was equal to 0.86 g, and the basic unit of length corresponded to 6.7 mm. The number system was already decimal then.

We know very little about the religious views of the inhabitants of the Indus Valley at this time. The materials we have allow us, however, to assert that there is a certain connection between the religious beliefs of the ancient population of the Indus Valley and the most widespread of the modern religions of India - Hinduism. Thus, the cult of the mother goddess was widespread, which even now still plays a very significant role in the religious beliefs of some peoples of India. In the frequently encountered image of a male deity, researchers see the prototype of the modern god Shiva, who is associated with a figure that now still plays a very significant role in the religious beliefs of some peoples of India. In the frequently encountered image of a male deity, researchers see a prototype of the modern god Shiva, associated with the ancient cult of fertility. The then widespread veneration of animals and trees is also characteristic of Hinduism. Ablution, as in Hinduism, was then an essential part of the religious cult.

Indus Valley Civilization

In the Ganges Valley, remains of small settlements dating back to the 3rd–2nd millennium BC have been found. e. Their inhabitants knew how to make copper products, but lived in a primitive economy with a predominance of such activities as hunting and fishing.

A much more developed culture developed in the Indus basin. It is called Harappan because of its largest center. Along with Harappa, an equally significant settlement existed on the site of modern Mohenjo-Daro (the name itself means “hill of the dead” in the local colloquial language). Houses in this and that city (and in many other, smaller ones) were built from baked bricks of a standard shape and size. They were closely adjacent to each other and were often two-story.

Seal with the image of a unicorn and the inscription [From Mohenjo-Daro]

The two-part layout of the city is typical: the citadel towered above the residential areas of the Lower City. It contained public buildings, and above all a huge granary. The fact that there was a single government in the city is evidenced by the regular layout: wide straight streets intersected at right angles, dividing the settlement into large blocks. A lot of metal products, sometimes very skillful, as well as written monuments have been preserved. All this allows us to consider the Harappan culture not primitive, but belonging to the era of civilization.

The origin of the people who created it is not yet entirely clear, since the decipherment of the written language has not been completed. The most plausible hypothesis is that the language of the so-called Proto-Indian inscriptions is close to the Dravidian languages, now widespread mainly in the extreme south of the Hindustan Peninsula (Tamil, Malayalam). And since the language of Elam was distantly related to the Dravidian languages, it is assumed that several millennia BC the Elamic-Dravidian linguistic community occupied vast territories - from India to the region adjacent to the southeastern part of Sumer.

Judging by the fact that the main centers of civilization gravitate towards the valleys of the Indus and its tributaries, agriculture was probably based on irrigation. The Indus civilization, apparently, can be classified as a “civilization of the great rivers.” Archaeological materials prove that it did not develop in isolation: routes from Harappa to Mesopotamia stretched through Iran and Central Asia, as well as along the sea coast. Objects have been found that indicate these connections. They date from the period between the reign of Sargon and the rise of the Old Babylonian kingdom under Hammurabi. For the time between the XXIV and XVIII centuries. BC e. and the Indus civilization flourished. It took shape in the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. (a little later than in Sumer and Egypt), and by the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. ceased to exist. The civilizations of that era were generally not durable, and due to natural, social or political reasons, society sometimes returned to the primitive stage. This was the case, for example, with agricultural crops of the same time in the south of Central Asia.

The spiritual culture of Harappa is known mainly due to the finds of numerous stone seals (or impressions on clay) with short hieroglyphic inscriptions and images. On finely carved reliefs we see scenes of worship of sacred animals and trees, as well as mythological scenes. Particularly interesting is the figure of a deity with huge horns, seated in a “yogic pose” (with heels folded together) surrounded by four animals. Apparently, this is the supreme god of the Harappans, embodying the idea of ​​domination over the four cardinal directions, personified by these animals. Judging by the numerous clay figurines of women in front of whom lamps were lit, the cult of female deities, usually associated with fertility, was also developed here. The pool discovered in the Mohenjo-Daro citadel was used for ritual ablutions; ablution rooms were also found in many residential buildings.

The worship of animals and trees, mother goddesses, the practice of ritual bathing - all this resembles the features of Hinduism, the folk religion of modern India, which allows us to talk about the heritage of Harappa.

From the book 100 Great Archaeological Discoveries author Nizovsky Andrey Yurievich

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