The timing is that. Quotes with the word "conclude"
In English, there is a rule of agreement (sequence) of tenses in complex sentences with subordinate clauses, that is, those that answer the question what? What? Most often, these subordinate clauses are introduced by the union that —What, which is often omitted altogether. In English, unlike Russian, a comma is not used in this case.
The tense matching rule is that the use of the tense of the verb-predicate in the subordinate clause depends on the tense of the verb-predicate of the main clause.
In cases where the main part of a complex sentence contains a predicate in the present or future tense, the verb in the subordinate part is not limited by any rules and can be in any required tense form. However, if in the main sentence the verb acting as a predicate is placed in one of the past tenses, the second part requires changes according to a certain system.
This rule is strictly observed in cases of replacing direct speech with indirect speech, when in the main sentence the predicate is expressed by one of the verbs that introduce indirect speech: tosay,totellspeak, say toaskask, toanswerreply, todeclare declare etc.; and also when there are verbs in the main clause: toknowknow, tothinkthink, believe, tobelievebelieve, believe, toexpectexpect, count, topromisepromise and so on.
If the verb-predicate of the main clause is in one of the forms of the past tense, then to use the verb-predicate of the subordinate clause in the correct tense, you need to use three rules:
1. If the actions in the main and subordinate clauses occur simultaneously in the past, then the predicate in the subordinate clause requires the forms of the past simple (past simple) or past continuous (past continuous) tenses. Translated into Russian in present tense.
I knew he was ill.I knew that he is ill.
Sally said she didn't like chocolate. Sally said that does not love chocolate.
He thought that i was playing chess. He thought that I playing play chess.
2 . If the action in the subordinate clause precedes the action in the main clause, then in the subordinate clause we use the past perfect (past perfect) or the past perfect continuous tense (past perfect continuous). Translated into Russian in the past tense.
I thought you had left England. I thought that you left from England.
I didn't know that he had gone to the cinema. I didn't know that he gone to the cinema.
We knew that they had been working in the garden since early morning. We knew that they worked in the garden in the morning.
3. If in the main clause the verb-predicate expresses the past action, and the action of the subordinate clause is the future from the point of view of the main action, then the future in the past is used in the subordinate clause. It is translated into Russian in the future tense.
I thought that you would go to school. I thought that you will you go to school.
He said he would post the letter himself. He said that he will send letter.
Ann said that she would have finished her exercises by seven o'clock. Annasaid, Whatshe will finish exercisesTo7 o'clock.
The timing rule is not respected in the following cases:
1. An additional subordinate clause expresses a well-known position, fact, judgment, etc.
He knew that metals conduct electricity. He knew that metals conduct electricity.
The speaker said that the people want peace. The speaker said that people want peace.
2. With modal verbs must must, should,ought should And neednecessary, which do not have past tense forms:
She said we must hurry. She said we must hurry.
I knew that he should talk to you. I knew he needed to talk to you.
3. In attributive clauses, modus operandi, cause and effect, where any temporary forms required by meaning can be used:
It was not so cold yesterday as it is now. Yesterday was not as cold as it is today.
My brother told me about the book you are writing. My brother told me about the book you are currently writing.
It should be remembered that when coordinating times, some words also change (circumstances of time and place):
Direct speech | Indirect speech |
this, these Yesterday | that, those |
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There are many definitions of time management. Each author who tries to reveal the specified topic brings something new to the definition of the specified concept. However, the semantic load of this concept still remains the same. "Time management" as a process aimed at the conscious and responsible use of one's time (business, personal, etc.), which allows one to set meaningful goals and achieve them in the shortest possible time.
Time management can be defined as planning, organizing the distribution and control over the use of working time in the organization and the manager's own time in order to improve the efficiency of individual departments and the organization as a whole.
Due to the fact that the market economy began to develop in Russia not so long ago, and also taking into account the mentality of Russian people in Russia, time management has its own characteristics. Plans have to be constantly reviewed, the goals facing the manager are not always clear and consistent. The plurality of goals, combined with the existence of different groups and interests, often leads to contradictions. The impossibility of setting clear and consistent goals leads to a violation at the very first stage of self-management. Consequently, the processes of planning and decision-making become more difficult (unexpected tasks arise, it is impossible to clearly prioritize).
In our country, the proportion of time spent on routine work in the time budget of managers is large. This indicates problems with the delegation of Russian managers. Many of them do not delegate routine work, either because subordinates are already loaded with work, or because they believe that they themselves will do this work better. As a result, the manager does not have enough time for really important, promising tasks. Another feature in the use of working time is that friendly relations between colleagues are more common in Russian companies. Many people prefer to start their working day with informal communication with colleagues, and not with the most important things; discussion of the terms of the contract can smoothly turn into a friendly conversation. In Russia, the image of a leader has developed as a person who constantly does not have time, and the more he lacks time, the more significant he seems. Some executives enthusiastically declare that they work 12-13 hour days as a sign of dedication to their work. Objectively, this only means that a person cannot prioritize and properly organize his time. Basically, how effectively a leader manages his time depends on his personality, on whether he wants to streamline his activities, consistently introducing the rules and principles of self-management into his work, because. this does not require any supernatural efforts either for the Russian leader, or for a person in any other country.
Time management includes the following elements:
1. Setting goals: the ability to single out the most important from many, the skill of turning problems into realistic work tasks with the subordination of secondary goals to the main one, using responsible wording, creating adequate motivation and setting clear criteria for achieving the goal.
2. Orientation to the result: "Who wants to achieve, looking for opportunities, who does not want - talks about the circumstances." The focus on results includes reasonable flexibility, which allows you to adapt to changes in the situation, nevertheless maintaining the course for the tasks set, worldly ingenuity, which allows you to overcome various obstacles and adequately use even small periods of working time for productive activities, and the ability to deal with traditional absorbers working time.
3. Methods and techniques of timekeeping - knowledge of the basic methods of effective accounting of one's own working time: selection of the optimal details of timekeeping, a convenient recording form, the ability to withdraw a protest against self-control, the optimal frequency of analysis and analysis schemes of one's own working time.
4. Ways and techniques of planning - the ability to prioritize, understanding the Pareto principle and familiarity with the system of setting life goals of B. Franklin, the Alpa method, the Eisenhower matrix and ABC analysis, knowledge of the rules for compiling a to-do list, the use of small and medium time.
5. Techniques of self-organization in work - tactics of using external support and negative stimulation, organization of the environment: "reminders", penalties and positive reinforcement, ways of forming a positive emotional mood.
6. Working with information - the skill of address search, the ability to work with text, highlighting the main theses from secondary information, knowledge of the features of search engines on the Internet, presenting information in a form acceptable to the customer.
7. Organization of the workplace - spatial organization of the workplace, operational work with papers, ways of convenient storage of correspondence, elimination of interference in work.
8. Working with the organizer - knowledge of the features of paper and electronic organizers, the choice of the optimal model, the rules for keeping records in the organizer, mastering the work with the organizer.
9. Distribution of time and responsibilities: the ability to say “No”, the feeling of the right to give tasks and ask for help, taking care of timely rest, careful use of other people’s time and understanding the appropriateness of delegation, the ability to negotiate with employees and superiors.
10. Ability to organize people and situations: understanding the appropriateness of a formal and "human" approach, the habit of understanding before responding, the tactics of using requests and requirements, the ability to play on interests and build one's own tasks into the goals of other people.
11. Effective leadership: the ability to establish contact with employees, the use of an individual approach, the skill of a positive approach, targeting and thoughtfulness of instructions, the ability to set specific and feasible tasks, exacting performance discipline, the use of samples and other methods of background training for employees.
12. Organization of meetings and work of groups - the skill of setting a clear goal for the meeting and formulating the agenda, knowledge of typical obstacles in the effective organization of meetings and the ability to overcome them, the ability to work with the personal ambitions of the participants.
Many researchers who study the problems of organizing working time identify the following reasons for the shortage of working time:
1. Constant haste. In a state of constant haste, the leader does not have time to focus on the task that he is performing at the moment. He follows the path that first came to mind, instead of thinking about other, perhaps more rational ways of solving this problem.
2. Lack of a clear distribution of work according to their degree of importance. At the same time, the leader begins to engage in the most easy and pleasant, not so important things. As a result, he does not have enough time to solve key, promising tasks.
3. Constant improvements at home. The work of a manager is related to some extent to intellectual activity, therefore it is difficult to divide the mental processes associated with this activity into those carried out during working and free time. This leads to the penetration of working time into free time. At the same time, the employee does not have time to rest, which affects his performance and health.
4. A large stream of routine cases, often urgent, which take a lot of time to work on.
5. "Thieves of time" - unforeseen and due to insufficient planning. The biggest time thieves are phone calls, uninvited visitors, cases that the manager takes on because he cannot refuse a request.
6. Fussiness. This is the result of poor organization of the day, and also sometimes depends on the impulsiveness and characteristics of the person.
7. Weak labor motivation. The result is low productivity, which creates a chronic lack of time.
Time use analysis will help identify temporary losses, show the strengths and weaknesses of the practiced working style. Such an analysis is simply necessary if it is not known what time is spent on at all, it is not known how much time it takes to complete certain tasks, it is not known what factors stimulate or limit performance. To analyze the problem, you need a reliable time record. The most effective way to keep track of time is to keep records. It is most advisable to keep records in the process of work, because. doing it in the evening, you can miss something. The level of detail of the records should be such that it is possible to judge the importance and necessity of each type of work. To get the most objective picture, you need to take notes within a week (or longer if necessary). In the leaflet ... it is necessary to record not only external interference, but also cases when the head himself was the initiator of the violation of the course of the working day. The strengths of the use of working time need to be identified and applied in everyday work. For weaknesses, it is necessary to develop a strategy to overcome them. First of all, each work should be analyzed using the following questions:
Was the job necessary? (if more than 10% of working time was spent on unnecessary work, this indicates problems with delegation and prioritization);
Were the time justified? (if more than 10% of the working time consisted of cases for which the time spent was not justified, it is necessary to analyze the reasons why the time was spent too much and try to take them into account in future work);
Was the work worth doing? (if more than 10% of working time was spent on tasks that were inappropriate, then you need to pay attention to planning, organization, self-realization);
Has a time frame been deliberately set for the work to be done? (if more than 10% of working time was spent on tasks, the time interval for which was determined spontaneously, then there are problems with planning working time).
The more mobile and changeable the external environment, the greater the need for planning as a means of developing a certain line of behavior in this environment. American researchers have established a high positive correlation between planning and success in human life. Indeed, a person who clearly understands what and when he needs to do has obvious advantages over someone who is forced to randomly move from one issue to another, not noticing that the lion's share of time is spent on solving secondary tasks that could be delegated to subordinates. .
Planning is carried out in stages, first for a long period of time (several years), then this period is divided into smaller time intervals. The shorter the period of time, the more detailed the plan should be. After the plan for the next few years is drawn up, a plan is drawn up for the year, and then a quarterly plan, which serves as a tool for controlling the annual budget. Based on the quarterly plan indicators, a monthly plan and ten-day plans are drawn up, including specific quantitative indicators that need to be achieved in the coming period. The last stage in the planning of working time is the daily plan, which is the most important stage of planning. It is a list of specific tasks that need to be completed during the day, and also involves breaking down cases into groups according to their importance and highlighting tasks that need to be delegated.
Principles and rules for planning your working time:
1. Ratio (60:40).
Experience shows that it is best to plan only for a certain part of the working time (60%).
Events that are difficult to foresee, distractions ("sinks" of time) cannot be planned entirely without a trace.
2. Bringing the tasks together - an action plan.
To make a good time plan, it is important to always have an idea of the upcoming business. It is advisable to divide them into long-, medium- and short-term tasks, set their priority and act in accordance with it.
3. Regularity - consistency - consistency. You need to work on time plans regularly and systematically, consistently bringing the work you have started to the end.
4. Realistic planning. Those. you need to plan only such a volume of tasks that the manager can realistically cope with.
5. Compensation for lost time. It is better to make up for lost time as soon as possible, for example, it is better to work longer once in the evening than to catch up on what was lost the day before during the next whole day.
6. Fixing results instead of actions.
It is necessary to fix results or goals in plans, and not just any actions, so that efforts are initially directed directly to achieving the goal. This will help to avoid unplanned activities.
7. Establishment of temporary norms.
Experience shows that as a rule, as much time is spent on work as is available. Therefore, it is necessary to set precise time standards, to provide in the plan exactly as much time for this or that business as it really requires.
8. Deadline.
To avoid procrastination and postponing cases, it is necessary to establish exact deadlines for all activities.
9. Recycling - double-checking.
The plan needs to be constantly revised and rechecked in terms of whether certain tasks can be fully completed.
10. Coordination of temporary plans. In order to successfully implement their plans, the leader needs to coordinate them with the plans of other people (secretary, boss, subordinates, colleagues).
goal setting- the most important stage in planning, since a clearly formulated goal serves to concentrate efforts on important areas. Goal setting requires expressing our explicit and hidden needs, interests, desires or tasks in the form of clear intentions and precise formulations, as well as orienting our actions and actions towards these goals, and their implementation.
Goal setting means looking to the future. Orientation and concentration of our forces and activity on what must be achieved. Thus, the goal describes the end result. It's not about what a person does, but about why he does it. Goals are a challenge and motivate a person to take action. Without goals, there is no Evaluation criterion against which to measure work. Goals, in addition, are also a scale for assessing what has been achieved. Even the best method of work is worthless if it is not clearly and unambiguously defined in advance what a person wants to achieve.
Goals are the "instigators" of action, the motives that determine human activity. If any individual has set a goal for himself, then a state of tension arises as a result of this, which acts as a driving force and which disappears only when the goal is achieved.
To set goals, you need to think about the future. Traditional thinking within the framework of particular tasks is fraught with the fact that a person can get lost in trifles. Thinking in terms of goals promotes the subordination of the particular to the whole. It becomes clear in which direction to move, and what should be the end result.
Goal setting is an ongoing process because goals are not set once and for all. They may change over time, for example, if it turns out during the follow-up process that previous perceptions were fundamentally wrong, or that requests were over or under.
Goal setting means the conscious implementation of one's actions in accordance with a guiding line or benchmark. Of fundamental importance here is the awareness of where a person wants to go and where he does not want to go (i.e., self-determination), so as not to end up where others want to take him. Goals serve to concentrate forces on really key areas.
Knowing your goals and consistently striving for them means focusing your energy on things that really matter, instead of wasting your energy in vain.
Knowing your goals can mean significant self-motivation to work. Random successes are good, but rare. Planned successes are better because they are manageable and happen more often.
The prerequisite for planning - and hence for success - is to know exactly what, when, and on what scale to achieve. Goal setting is an absolute prerequisite for planning, decision-making and daily work.
Many researchers in the field of "time management" distinguish the following rules for setting goals:
1. The scale of the goals.
Goals in management are determined by the planning period. If a plan is drawn up for the future, then the most general, strategic goals are set here. They reflect the most important, global results that a person must achieve in order to fulfill the tasks assigned to him.
When drawing up a plan for a period of 3-5 years, the goals are formulated more specifically and many of them have very specific quantitative characteristics. These goals may relate to improving the well-being of the person himself, for example, acquiring an apartment, a car, placing a child in a prestigious educational institution.
The most specific are the goals that need to be achieved within the execution of a shorter period of time. In this case, quite specific tasks are developed and indicators are set that must be achieved.
As the planning horizon approaches a specific day, the scope of goals narrows. Dealing with the definition of goals for a particular period, a person is simultaneously engaged in time planning, establishing at what time intervals each specific result should be achieved.
2. Clarity, specificity and measurability of goals.
The easiest way to ensure that a goal is effectively achieved is to present it in a way that is quantifiable. Finding personal life goals and defining them means giving direction to your life. This will create conditions for an objective assessment of the progress of work, as well as those measures that are taken by a person to achieve this goal. One of the methods for concretizing goals is their written registration, which contributes to the fact that more or less bold ideas and desires are often recorded. Thus, a person learns to constantly engage in their goals and refine them. In writing, the goals are also visually imprinted and less prone to forgetting. If the goals are clearly defined, then they automatically become binding: fixed on paper, they encourage permanent analysis, re-checking and revision.
3. Attainable goals.
The goals that management sets for the organization and its employees should be consistent with the financial, production and other resources available. Otherwise, an organization that raises the bar too high could end up in a catastrophic situation.
4. Mutually supportive goals.
Goals should not contradict each other, but on the contrary, they should support each other so that the achievement of one goal does not interfere with the achievement of others. This allows you to more effectively control the process of performing the assigned tasks in the event of any problems, quickly find and eliminate the cause.
In order to succeed, you need to learn how to choose the right goals. Each person has one main, most important goal, which is broken down into many small intermediate lower-level goals, the achievement of which ensures the achievement of a higher-level goal and, ultimately, a higher goal. It is necessary to set clear, mutually agreed goals that can be turned into immediate actions so that they can be directly planned. Clearly defined goals fixed on paper automatically become mandatory, prompting constant analysis, re-checking and revision.
To achieve something and be successful, you need to spend time and money. Certain methods and careful disposition are necessary in order to achieve the goal as well as possible and in a reasonable time:
What goals do you want to achieve?
Do they agree with each other?
Are there a so-called higher goal and certain intermediate goals on the way to the main one?
Do you know what you yourself can do for this (strengths) and what you still need to work on (weaknesses)?
Finding personal goals can be accomplished through the following four steps.
(1) Development of general ideas about life aspirations.
(2) Differentiation in time of life goals.
(3) Development of guiding ideas in the professional field.
(4) Inventory goals.
There are rules for organizing the working day, which can be divided into 3 groups:
rules for the beginning of the day, the main part of the day and the end of the day.
Rules for starting the day
1. Start the day with a positive attitude. Try to find some positive start to each day, as the mindset with which you begin to tackle the challenges ahead is essential to your success. Ask yourself three questions every morning:
1. How can this day bring me closer to achieving my goals?
2. What should I do to get as much joy out of him as possible?
3. What can I do today to maintain my lifestyle (to support my health)?
Creating a positive attitude usually does not take more than two minutes. Give yourself those two minutes before starting your "standard morning routine."
2. Have a good breakfast and without haste - to work. Without sleep, without breakfast, as soon as possible to work - such a start can just ruin the day! Don't say you don't have time for a leisurely breakfast, it's a matter of prioritizing (you just need to go to bed early to get enough sleep and eat a hearty breakfast).
3. Start work at the same time. This is an element of self-discipline, contributing to the mobilization of forces.
4. Check your plans for the day. Use the ABC analysis method or the Eisenhower principle. It has been established that a ten-minute preparation for a working day saves up to two hours of working time. So win these two hours! In addition, when planning a working day, consider the following rule: you need to plan no more than 60% of your time, and 40% is a reserve fund for unexpected and urgent matters.
5. Get down to business without buildup. You should categorically refuse such a "morning ritual" as reusable greetings, lengthy discussions of the latest news, etc. (Think of time wasters). Of course, social contacts are needed, and you are not a robot. However, they can be moved to less stressful times, such as lunch and afternoon.
6. First - the key tasks. You should start the working day with the tasks of group A, all other things can wait. Don't look through correspondence first - incoming business mail rarely deals with cases that have the highest priority and must be completed immediately.
7. Coordinate the plan of the day with the secretary. The secretary, if you have one, is your most important partner when it comes to creating optimal conditions for activities. You should devote the first time of the working day to him, even if it is a couple of minutes. The secretary should be aware of your affairs. Coordinate with him all the dates, priorities and plans for the day. A good secretary doubles the efficiency of his boss, and a bad secretary reduces it by half.
Mid-day scheduling rules.
1. Prepare your desk for work. Remove from the table all unnecessary papers for solving problems of group A. There should be no more than six documents on the desktop at the same time. This is psychologically justified: firstly, extra papers absorb time, and secondly, order on the table stimulates order in thoughts.
2. Set deadlines. Sometimes tasks are assigned to you, because you are also someone's subordinate. So, the deadlines set for solving a problem are very often accepted unconditionally, even if they do not fit well into your plans. And we must try to adapt them to our interests and "bargain time." In short, ask for twice as much time as it takes to complete a given task; this is often easier than you think. As for assigning tasks to subordinates, I advise you to give them about a third less time than, in your opinion, is necessary for solving the problem. If that's enough, you'll save time, if not, you still won't lose.
3. Avoid actions that cause backlash. Many leaders tend to engage in more and more new cases, problems and ideas, and in doing so, they cause an appropriate reaction to their actions, which can affect the time schedule. For example, very often, having participated once (out of pure interest) in a meeting, the manager receives additional duties that are not provided for by his plan. He can be entrusted with something, included in the working group, etc. Therefore, it is best to double-check all actions (letters, telephone conversations, agreeing on deadlines, etc.) from the point of view of their necessity and the danger of a response.
4. Reject additional pressing issues that arise. In every enterprise, in every department, various kinds of urgent circumstances or unforeseen situations arise. It should be remembered that distraction by the so-called urgent circumstances leads to forgetting the planned important things for a while. Whether it is worth doing this - decide on a case-by-case basis, depending on the circumstances.
The mission of our time is precisely to direct culture, art, ethics, to the service of life. José Ortega y Gaset Philosophy XX cent.
Modern philosophy, like all spiritual culture, is difficult to evaluate and classify. Processes must be “settled”. The main feature of the development of philosophy of the twentieth century. - pluralism of schools, directions; the emergence of new non-standard ideas and concepts. The reason for this is the democratization of public life, the will is a catalyst for creativity, and creativity is always diversity.
Features of the philosophy of the twentieth century. It went far beyond the boundaries of academic audiences Appeared in its main manifestations as neoclassical It became widespread through publications, public lectures, symposiums, seminars, and the like The language of philosophy became understandable for every person, was addressed to the masses Its inherent colossal diversity, variegation, richness in varieties and variants Radical reassessment of ideas, ideas, values; trend of minimalism For the philosophy of the twentieth century. there are no forbidden topics Actualization of the previous philosophy Concentration on the ideas of the twentieth century.
The main directions Scientism is a worldview that positively assesses the social consequences of scientific and technological revolution, considers the main task of philosophy to serve the rapid development of science. The most famous schools are: - positivism - neo-positivism
Irrationalism - a negative reaction to scientific and technological revolution, awareness of the unevenness of technical and spiritual progress; a statement of the spiritual crisis, pessimistic forecasts of the future. In the center - a person is lost and "launched" in the modern world. Main schools: - Psychoanalysis - Neo-Freudianism - Philosophy of life - Existentialism
They do not take such extreme positions and are not drawn up in this scheme: - Phenomenology - Pragmatism Theistic concepts: neo-Thomism and personalism
Positivism A philosophical direction based on the principle that positive consciousness is achieved only by specific sciences, and philosophy as a science has no right to exist.
Arises in the 30s of the nineteenth century. , has three main historical forms: Classical positivism (Auguste Comte, E. Littre) Machism and empiriocritism (Ernst Mach, R. Avenarius) Neopositivism (Bertrand Russell, L. Wittgenstein) Also known are such currents as logical positivism (M. Schlick, R Kapnap), linguistic positivism (J. Moore) and post-positivism or analytical philosophy - T. Kuhn, Lakatos.
“Most of the things and questions expressed about philosophical problems are nonsense, argued L. Wittgenstein. – Most of the propositions and questions of philosophy appear due to the fact that we do not understand the logic of our language" Model of the world in the philosophy of neopositivism Ontology Communication Gnoseology World Language of Knowledge
Existentialism - the philosophy of existence - is an irrationalist direction in modern philosophy. The founder, M. Heidegger, considered a person not from the outside, not as an object of observation and study, but from the middle of her phenomenal world. What distinguishes the philosophy of existentialism? Turn to a person (study of a specific individual person) Interpretations of the will (emerges from understanding the essence of human existence) Irrationalism (irrational ways of comprehending reality)
“The philosophy of existentialism has really put a person face to face with the most important issues of life, making the inner world of a person the only starting point for understanding all aspects of life. Therefore, it is not surprising that the ideas of this philosophy inspired many people during the Second World War.” J. Ortega y Gaset
Philosophy of Life W. Dilthey Ortega y Gasset José, Georg Simmel Henri Bergson: “Creative Evolution”, “Perception of Variability” Friedrich Nietzsche: “Beyond Good and Evil”, “Thus Spoke Zarathustra” An irrationalist philosophical school centered on the concept of "life" as an integral reality, not identical to either spirit or matter.
Psychoanalysis A psychological and philosophical concept that considers the flight of the unconscious to be the basis of human existence. Founder - Sigmund Freud (Freudianism -> neo-Freudianism) At the end of the 30s, neo-Freudianism arose, whose representatives (E. Fromm, K. Horney, etc.) tried to move away from Freud's biologism and create a sociological and cultural doctrine
Studying various types of neuroses, Z. Freud came to the conclusion that they are due to the action of a rather powerful layer of the human psyche, powerful, but invisible, hidden; he called this layer of the psyche the unconscious. "unconscious" and is the basic concept of Freudianism, is the object of deep psychological and socio-philosophical research. Sigmund Freud (1856 -1939) The influence of Freudianism on social thought in the 30s of the XX century. it was huge; Freud's teaching contributed to the deployment of the so-called "sexual revolution. The most important thing is that it has already irrefutably proved that a person and his behavior cannot be reduced to mental calculations, that in general a person arises much more complicated than it seemed to classical culture.
Phenomenology is associated with the name of Edmund Husserl, who considers the realm of pure truths, a priori meanings, to be the subject of philosophy. Pragmatism is an American philosophy of "action", which reduces the essence of concepts, ideas, theories to practical operations of subordination N. Ch. Pierce, W. James, John Dewey received official recognition from the Vatican.
Edmund Husserl (1859 -1938) E. Husserl emphasized that we are always dealing with a hair dryer, that is, with what is provided to us, what has appeared before us
Personalism is a direction of theistics in modern philosophy, which recognizes the personality as the primary creative reality and the highest spiritual value. Representatives: N. A. Berdyaev, L. Shestov, B. Bone. P. Reeker and others.
At the heart of the worldview is pluralism - the recognition of the plurality of opinions, will, and personalities. Personality is considered as the main manifestation of being. The sources of personality are still rooted in a single beginning - God.
M. O. Berdyaev categorically declared that only a person can explain to us what a person is, and not vice versa. Especially there is an absolute, that is, a divine spiritual unit, and therefore it in its original quality arises as absolute freedom, that is, freedom away from everything, including from God, because in relation to God, a person has the opportunity to determine himself. Nikolai Berdyaev (1874 -1948)
One of the most revolutionary concepts we learned about in the 20th century is that time is not a universal quantity - it is relative. Its speed depends entirely on your speed and acceleration at any given moment.
But how can time go faster and slower at the same time? - As explained in one of the latest episodes of MinutePhysics, the more you move, the more time slows down. And this is not about our perception of time, but about the speed of real time, which, for example, is slowed down in experiments by accelerating particles such as muons and photons.
In Einstein's theory of relativity, time dilation is described as the difference in time between two events, measured by observers moving relative to each other - in one direction or in different directions, depending on their approach to the gravitational mass. Basically, it says that the faster we go, the more we influence time. But if time is as relative as we assume, it may seem contradictory.
Imagine if the two of us are moving through empty space in opposite directions, and then suddenly pass each other.
“From my point of view, it seems that you are moving, and, accordingly, time should go more slowly for you. But from your point of view, I'm moving, so time should slow down for me, ”the video says.
Look at the giraffe. Its height is 3 meters. And the height of your giraffe for you will also be 3 meters. However, since you are facing me, my giraffe will only be 2 meters tall for you. I am also turned in relation to you, and for me the height of your giraffe will be 2 meters. Thus, each thinks that the other defines his distance as being longer, but there is no contradiction in this. It only says that we rotate the height and width relative to each other.
What happens over time is similar: when you change the speed, you turn the direction of time. It looks like this: if every passing second I move to the left, then time will move to the right and vice versa (see video, 1:24). Accordingly, when 3 seconds pass on my watch, I only measure 2 seconds on yours. And when 3 seconds pass on your watch, you will only count 2 seconds for me. It turns out that each thinks that the second measures the distance of time for the other as shorter, and here again there is no contradiction. It only says how time behaves when it is rotated, and this affects not only the passage of time, but also our concept of "the same time."
The state of culture and scientific progress determine the perception of time by a person: the agrarian cult gave rise to a mythological model according to which everything repeats in a circle, with the development of Christianity, mankind began to perceive time as a drama, and the discovery of the Second Law of Thermodynamics gave rise to the arrow metaphor. T&P spoke with philosopher Vadim Rudnev about why the time of reality and the time of the text move in the opposite direction, what is the alternative to the arrow of time, and why God is a cultural necessity.
What is entropy? What is information? And why do the time of reality and the time of the text move in the opposite direction?
Somewhere in the 1920s, the Second Law of Thermodynamics was formulated. It says that there is a value that represents the level of equiprobability of the system, the level of chaos, and this value increases irreversibly in closed systems. What does this mean in practice? If a certain action is performed in physical reality, then this means that its consequences are irreversible. That is, for example, if you drink coffee and pour cream into it, then coffee and cream will never separate after that.
Actually this is not true. Ludwig Boltzmann, a physicist of the second half of the 19th century, reformulated this law in probabilistic language in his lectures on the theory of gases: cream and coffee can separate, but this is very unlikely. As he wrote, the probability of this is equal to the fact that at one moment all the inhabitants of the city will commit suicide. The saddest thing is that after his concept was severely criticized, he committed suicide.
In the middle of the 20th century, the German philosopher Hans Rechenbach, one of the members of the Vienna Circle, formulated the following statement: the irreversibility of natural scientific time, or anisotropy, corresponds to the flow of thermodynamic processes. That is, the fact that time, from the point of view of natural science physics, flows from the past into the future corresponds to the fact that entropy can only increase.
“For me, as a linguist, it is very important that the words “beginning” and “end” have the same root. “Ko” is a prefix, and “net” and “nach” can be shown using certain laws of phonetic changes that this is one root. And why? But because this arrow of time closes on itself. And where there is an end, there really is a beginning.”
Now what is information? Information is an entity that is equal in absolute value to entropy, but opposite to it in vector. When something happens in reality, and time moves in a positive direction, that is, in the direction of increasing entropy, then an anti-informative process occurs - something is destroyed, disintegrates, turns into equally probable chaos. In the concept of Yuri Mikhailovich Lotman, this corresponds to what he called predictability, that is, when there are certain processes that we can predict with approximately equal probability, then this is precisely the absence of information.
My logic was like this. If in reality, as it was understood in the 19th century, entropy increases, in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics (in any case, it tends to increase), then in the text, that is, in what is used as a sign system, as speech activity, as any operation with signs, there is an exhaustion of entropy. It seems such a strange sophism, because we are used to representing time as something spatial, we are used to representing it as a direct ray, as an arrow.
Where did this metaphor come from? Has she always been?
The arrow of time is a metaphor for Arthur Edington, one of the popularizers of the general theory of relativity. But no one has proven that time is really something like an arrow. The word "direction" in relation to time has a certain metaphorical meaning. Therefore, the positive direction, the negative direction - we can think of it as just an alternating current: on - off - on - off. And in fact, in what we call culture, this is exactly what is happening: we are simultaneously living in a mode of increasing entropy, that is, we are moving towards death, but at the same time, since we are saying something to each other, we are trying to understand each other, we are trying to to tell each other something, we are trying to generalize our ideas in some abstract systems, all this leads to a certain depletion of entropy in the world.
The idea of immortality, as it is embedded in culture, is to suppress this entropy all the time with the help of an increase in unpredictable and interesting information. That is, as Maurice Nicoll, a student of Gurdjieff, Ouspensky and Jung, said, in order to achieve some cultural immortality, one must live against life. The less a person is physiological, the more he is tuned to the exhaustion of entropy and the increase of information.
Actually, this is a very difficult question. On the one hand, a person does not want to die: "Everyone will die, but I will stay." On the other hand, according to Hegel, awareness of one's death is characteristic of only one species on Earth, namely, man. Moreover, Hegel wrote in the Phenomenology of Spirit, and Alexander Kozhev emphasized in his lectures, a person must not only understand the idea of death, but also accept it. But I, in my final reflections, refuse to accept the idea of death. And I think that we should still move in an informative mode towards overcoming entropy.
It is difficult not only to imagine, but also to formulate - a movement in opposite directions of text and reality. What metaphor would you use to describe the passage of time?
Let's then approach the matter from the other side. I spent the whole spring and part of the summer writing the book The New Model of Time. What is the new model of time? It is a synthesis of four existing models of time.
The first model of time is mythological. It is not an arrow at all, it is a circle. This means, in essence, that after death a person is resurrected. And his life begins anew. Such a natural justification and the beginning of such an approach to time is the idea of an agrarian cult. As it is written in the Gospel of John: “Truly, truly, I say that if the grain that has fallen into the ground does not die, it will remain alone, but if it dies, it will bear much fruit.” That is, the very possibility of death implies a further rebirth. Hence, apparently, in most religions the cult of the dying and resurrecting God. First of all, this is Dionysus - the cult that was reproduced in the mysteries, and this is our Jesus Christ. Here one immediately recalls the novel The Master and Margarita, when Mikhail Alexandrovich Berlioz with a learned look explained to Ivan Bezdomny why there is no God: “There is not a single Eastern religion,” said Berlioz, “in which, as a rule, an immaculate maiden would not give birth God. And Christians, without inventing anything new, created their own Jesus in the same way, who in fact never lived. This is where the main emphasis should be placed ... ”That is, according to his primitive logic, there is absolutely nothing to be surprised at: Christians came up with such a myth, because it is a universal myth that every entity has its end, which turns into a beginning.
For me, as a linguist, it is very important that the words "beginning" and "end" have the same root. “Ko” is, as it were, a kind of prefix, “nets” - “beginning” - can be shown using certain laws of phonetic changes that this is one root. And why? But because this arrow of time closes on itself. And where there is an end, there is actually a beginning.
The second model is related to Christianity.
Yes. The second model I call eschatological, it has been actively developing for about 2,000 years. That is, from the time Jesus began to preach. For the first time St. Augustine spoke about this seriously in the book "On the City of God" and in the book "Confessions". His idea is that the whole history of mankind since the creation of man is a drama. Here we return, and not by chance, to where we started. The whole history of reality, from the point of view of Augustine, is a text. And therefore, it is no coincidence that Yuri Mikhailovich Lotman called Augustine the founder of semiotics.
“According to the eschatological model of time, time is a drama, a text, and everything that happens is predetermined from the very beginning. Because when we open any text, novel or theory of relativity, you can look at the last page - everything is already written. As Dmitry Alexandrovich Prigov said, everything that is written is written in heaven. And in this sense, it turns out that if we adhere to the eschatological model of time, then it makes no sense to live and act at all.”
Like any drama, historical drama has its beginning, its climax and its denouement. The exposition of, let's say, historical drama - creation, when God created people. The fall into sin became its plot. The same Maurice Nicholl, the man whom I consider my correspondence teacher, he said that in any scripture, be it Jewish, Christian, Muslim, not a single word, not a single sentence can be taken literally. And so we will make a reservation, we will take this into account. Nevertheless, why in the Old Testament did the fall become the beginning of the historical drama? Because the fall means the beginning of the flow of time. There was no time before the Fall, because there was no idea of death. Paradise is an achronous place, there is no time at all, everything happens there in eternity, that is, in our physical sense, it does not happen at all.
What happened during the Fall? What was the actual story there? God said: “Eat from all the fruits, but by no means from the tree of the knowledge of Good and Evil!” And there was a certain animal - the Serpent, which said: "Try it." What happened when they bit into these fruits? We then began to call them apples, by analogy with the apple of Newton, Helen of Troy, and so on. They saw that they were naked. There has been a division in the sense of Deleuze, or a distinction in the sense of Derrida. That is, in essence, they realized that they were incomplete.
To understand that something is changing and time is flowing, you need to understand that a person is not a kind of completeness, that another person is also a kind of integrity, which, in fact, is not such an integrity. That is, there is an Other, and this Other is watching and watching you, and he is not the same as you, and it is very difficult to get into his skin. It is impossible or very difficult to understand what he is thinking, and in order to understand what he is thinking, such a thing as human language is needed. I think that before the fall, the first people did not have a language, because there was nothing to talk about. Language is needed when something is wrong. And I think that this knowledge of good and evil, the knowledge of what is good and what is bad, this distinction or separation is the acquisition of language.
What is the acquisition of a human language? The most important thing in human language is that words don't look like what they mean: that the word "telephone" doesn't look like a telephone, that the word "cup" doesn't look like a cup. In 1997, the English psychiatrist Timothy Crow wrote an article "Is schizophrenia a price to pay for a person's use of conventional language?" Its meaning is that at the moment when the signifier and the signified became dissimilar, a breakdown occurred, a gene mutation, and a certain schizophrenic gene got into a person, which, in essence, made a person not like all other species. That is, a reasonable person is at the same time an insane person. Because when a person uses words that are not like what they mean, it basically means split, it means something schizophrenic. It was in this paradoxical form that human thinking was born, man was born. That is what the serpent-devil put into man.
That is, in essence, this is a character who gave people the knowledge that they are different. And this difference, the potential difference, if we switch to the language of physics, is what has moved this heavenly achronism off the ground. And since people realized that they are different, it means that they are not integral. If they are not complete, then they are flawed. Once flawed, they will eventually end. It was at this moment that the idea of death appeared. This was the beginning of the progressive model of time, which is called eschatological. The man realized that he was mortal. God, in punishment for the fact that they did not obey him, said: "Now you will give birth in the throes of children and you will die yourself."
Returning to the ideas of Blessed Augustine. What actually happened next, what was the denouement of this historical drama? The denouement was the story of Jesus Christ. A strange, paradoxical thing happened. God sent his Son to save us. In essence, this means that He showed that death should not be feared, because it actually does not exist. Frankly, this formula does not satisfy me at all. I agree with Nietzsche that Christ was the only Christian and that then everything went completely out of whack. He said something like this: “What you used to think was right, what the Old Testament and the prophets bequeathed, what you just need to do as they are told, that is, the automatic repetition of rules and norms - this does not mean being a person.”
In order to be human, one must produce with oneself what is called “metanoia” in the New Testament. This term does not mean repentance, it means a change of mind. That is, in essence, this is a transition to another psychological level, this is a transition to the level of what Gudzhiev calls self-remembering. It is the simplest and most complex thing in the world. You have to remember yourself all the time. This is very difficult to explain. The simplest metaphor, what I know from Nicholl, is to live against life. That is, you need to live in the informative direction of time. You have to disobey your physiology. You need to remember all the time that you belong to some kind of cultural community. If we think in terms of psychoanalysis, then each of us has a small mirror - the individual unconscious, and a large mirror - the collective unconscious, and we look into them all the time, and from one we draw another.
“The most important thing in human language is that words are not like what they mean, that the word 'telephone' is not like a telephone, that the word 'cup' is not like a glass. In 1997, the English psychiatrist Timothy Crow wrote an article "Is schizophrenia a price to pay for a person's use of conventional language?" Its meaning is that at the moment when the signifier and the signified became dissimilar, a breakdown occurred, a gene mutation, and a certain schizophrenic gene got into a person, which, in essence, made a person not like all other species. That is, a reasonable person is at the same time an insane person.
According to the eschatological model of time, time is a drama, a text, and everything that happens is predetermined from the very beginning. Because when we open any text, novel or theory of relativity, you can look at the last page - everything is already written. As Dmitry Alexandrovich Prigov said, everything that is written is written in heaven. And in this sense, it turns out that if we adhere to the eschatological model of time, then it is generally meaningless to live and act. What for? If everything has already happened. In this sense, there is nothing to be afraid of death. And what is the point of being afraid of her if the book of my life has already been written?
And when did the third model appear?
I think it is 1827, Sadi Carnot, a French engineer, wrote a book "Reflections on the driving force of fire." In this book, the second law of thermodynamics was formulated. What was obtained as a result of the discovery of the second law of thermodynamics? There is no immortality. We'll all die to hell - there's nothing to hope for. Positivism appears, which replaced romanticism.
In the system that appeared after the second law of thermodynamics, people became aware of death. Unfortunately, I do not know enough about the history of physics to understand what happened in this discipline, why this new law was discovered just then. But in terms of cultural history, it is quite clear to me that man is tired of feeling immortal. Because immortality is such a thing that one gets very tired of it. But it is also very difficult to be an atheist, it takes great courage for a man of culture to become an atheist and say: “I don’t know what God is, in fact we will all die,” and one must have the courage to accept death, as Hegel said.
But why did the crisis of romanticism occur? What happened was that a person tried to embark on a disastrous path. Perhaps we came up with this path later, in hindsight, as Freud said. Žižek described this in detail in his book The Sublime Object of Ideology. The man began to say that even if he dies, but as long as he is alive, he is the master of everything. This setting, intention, which is characteristic of that very short period when the entropy model of time dominated. Relatively speaking, since the 40s of the 19th century, for 50 years, man has maintained this state of quasi-positivism.
But what does the second law of thermodynamics mean? What does it mean that time moves in an irreversible direction? After all, in fact, Hans Reichenbach was not talking about this at all. He said that only the majority of thermodynamic processes, the ensemble of thermodynamic processes, represents temporal anisotropy in terms of entropy. Because the most important thing is that there are no closed systems. What is a closed system? This is a complete abstraction. And in general, this so-called physics is a complete abstraction, completely inconsistent with common sense.
We had a seminar of the Professional Psychotherapeutic League (I am a psychologist by the second specialty), we analyzed Newton's First Law: the body is at rest or moves in a straight line, as long as no force acts on it. But this is absurd! What does it mean to be at rest or move in a straight line? Either it is at rest or it is moving. I do not understand this. And we came to the conclusion that this law is a schism, a consequence of Newton's schizophrenia. This, by the way, was recorded in the documents, he was completely insane. That is, we live according to physics from the point of view of a person who was crazy. And that's the way it is.
And the second law of thermodynamics also does not correspond to anything at all. Einstein said that the world is both finite and infinite and neither can be proved. Complete absurdity! And this was very quickly understood already at the end of the 19th century. That is, there have been two branches of quasi-positivist thought, which I call reeschatologisation and remythologisation. That is, respectively, a return to more reliable, old and mobile concepts of time. For example, Teilhard de Chardin, being both a biologist and a theologian, synthesized creationism and Darwinism. He said that humanity is moving towards a certain goal, and that this goal is the so-called Omega point, which will not represent the end of humanity, but the beginning. That is, we will come to such a state of things when there will no longer be individual people, but there will be some kind of common humanity. To paraphrase this in modern language, there will be a huge Internet that will represent the culture of the future.
“A person in an altered state of consciousness, the simplest equivalent of which is dreams, can move through time as through space. The most important discovery of John William Dunn is that time is multi-dimensional, and it is as multi-dimensional as there are observers.
Remythologization is a simpler process, it began right away at the beginning of the 19th century, which was expressed, in particular, in such a direction as neomythologism. Neo-mythologism is a term that was first used by the remarkable Russian scientist Eleazar Moiseevich Meletinsky in the book Poetics of Myth, which was published when I was a freshman, in 1975. Neo-mythologism he calls such cultural constructions, which, in particular, are expressed by Joyce. We have a certain history of Leopold Bloom's movements when he meets Stephen Daedalus, and this whole history is superimposed on the wanderings of Odysseus. And the wanderings of Odysseus are a kind of decoding device, according to which this simple, ordinary story acquires the significance of some universal scale.
The last, fourth model of time remained.
The last model of time in culture that I know of is that of John William Dunn. He lived at the beginning of the 20th century and published four books. The first one was published in 1920, it is called "Experiment with Time" (it is in Russian translation), the second one was published in 1930, it is called "Serial Universe", then "New Immortality" and the last book is called "Nothing Dies". What did he suggest? It all started with the fact that he began to notice that some of his dreams come true. But it has always been, always said that there are prophetic dreams, starting from the Old Testament: the pharaoh dreamed of 7 fat cows, 7 thin cows ... And there were always interpretations of dreams. And he began to track them and came to the following conclusion: a person in an altered state of consciousness, the simplest equivalent of which is dreams, can move through time as through space. The most important discovery of John William Dunn is that time is multi-dimensional, and it is as multi-dimensional as there are observers.
He gives such a parable. A certain artist was kept in a lunatic asylum, rightly or not - is unknown. He escaped from an insane asylum and decided to paint a complete model of the universe on a painting. He went out into the open, set up an easel, stood in front of it and began to draw everything he saw. He painted a picture, but it seemed to him that something was missing. He thought for a long time what was missing, and realized that he himself, who was painting this picture, was missing. He asked the village boy to pose, pushed back the easel and began to draw himself painting this picture. That is, a certain series appeared: one in the other, a mirror in a mirror. When he drew it, he realized that he was again missing something. He missed himself, painting himself, painting a picture. He pushed back the easel again and painted like this. And so on ad infinitum. And the limit of this infinity is again God, you can’t get away from him anywhere. You can believe in him, you can not believe in him. But nevertheless, we come to the conclusion that this is a kind of cultural necessity. It can be stupid, whatever, but there's nothing we can do about it. That is reality, it is layered or serial, as Dunn says. There are as many of these time tails as there are observers. And since in a dream we are, as it were, observing ourselves, therefore these measurements multiply.
And the second parable - this is what I discovered myself. Despite the fact that Dunn was unpopular in a narrow scientific environment (although I learned this name from a book on the philosophy of the time), he greatly influenced humanitarian thinkers, Borges in particular. And Borges even has an essay of the time, "John William Dunn." So Borges has a very strange, unpopular story called "The Other". It was published once in a very small book in 1983 in the Library of Foreign Literature and for some reason has not been republished since then.
“We have a certain history of the movements of Leopold Bloom when he meets Stephen Daedalus, and this whole history is superimposed on the wanderings of Odysseus. And the wanderings of Odysseus are a kind of decoding device, according to which this simple, ordinary story acquires the significance of some universal scale.
The story is next. Old man Borges is sitting in the park and meets a young man who sits next to him. Borges is already blind. And he somehow, by the voice of the young man, understands that it is he himself in the past. Young Borges does not believe him at first, says that this cannot be. Then Borges begins to tell him about his mother, about his relatives, and so on. In the end, the young man still believes him, leaves and leaves him a coin. But it is strange that there is no time paradox. In principle, if one follows the concept of the arrow of time, then the old Borges must remember how he met his old self in his youth. But for the old Borges it was a complete surprise when he met his young self. What happened? I then believed, and still believe now, that this could only be interpreted using John William Dunn's serial concept of time, which Borges knew and apparently unconsciously used.
The interpretation is very simple. Young Borges in a dream, in an altered state of consciousness, moves into the future and meets himself there in old age, but when he wakes up, he forgets his dream, and therefore, having lived to old age and having met himself young, he does not remember that once being young, he met himself in old age. This is such a very interesting and, in my opinion, very productive model of time.
It lies in the fact that you can move in time as in space?
In an altered state of consciousness. That is, if you are in a dream, if you are insane ...
But this is not an illusion, not a hallucination?
You know, I recently gave a lecture on this topic. A girl came up to me and said, “Can you explain this phenomenon to me? I saw the hands of the clock moving backwards.” I said, “Yes, I can explain this phenomenon. Have you read John William Dunn's book An Experiment with Time? The girl said: “No, I didn’t read it.” “Read it,” I said. She signed up and left. My students immediately approached me and said: “Well, don’t you understand, she’s stoned, she takes drugs.” I said, "But I took it all seriously and was able to explain it to her." Is it an illusion? And the devil knows!
